Roman Civil War

…the decisive engagement in the Roman civil war (49–45 bce) between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great. After failing to subdue his enemies at Dyrrhachium (now Dürres, Albania), Caesar clashed with Pompey somewhere near Pharsalus (now Fársala, Greece). Although Caesar was greatly outnumbered, his veteran legions

…by cultivating influence with powerful Roman commanders and using their capacity to aggrandize Roman clients and allies. Julius Caesar pursued Pompey to Egypt in 48 bce. After learning of Pompey’s murder at the hands of Egyptian courtiers, Caesar stayed long enough to enjoy a sightseeing tour up the Nile in…

Tensions grew and civil wars erupted. The ensuing period of unrest and revolution marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire.

Pompey had exuded confidence over the outcome if it came to war. In fact, however, Caesar’s veterans were unbeatable, and both men knew it. To the disgust of his followers, Pompey evacuated Rome, then Italy. His plan was to bottle Caesar up in…

In 49, the year the Civil War broke out between Pompey and Caesar, Antony was tribune of the plebs and vigorously supported Caesar. He fled from Rome to Caesar’s headquarters after receiving threats of violence. Antony fought in the brief Italian…

…committed the first act of war. This was not, however, the heart of the matter. The actual question of substance was whether the misgovernment of the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility should be allowed to continue or whether it should be replaced by an autocratic regime. Either alternative would…

Meanwhile, from outside the walls of Rome, Pompey watched the anarchy in the city becoming daily more intolerable. He was prepared to wait without committing himself until the Optimates found an alliance with him unavoidable. He refused further offers from Caesar of a marriage…

…his father’s allies, supplied the Roman general and former triumvir Pompey the Great with ships and troops. Subsequently, a court clique, headed by Theodotus, the eunuch Pothinus, and the general Achillas, gained influence over the king, fanning the growing rivalry between him and his strong-willed sister. Expelled from Egypt by…