World Intellectual Property Organization: …in 1893 to become the United International Bureau for the Protection of Intellectual Property (BIRPI), which was based in Bern, Switzerland.

Iraq: Rocky transition to civilian government: …on December 15, the Shiʿi United Iraqi Alliance (UIA) gained the most seats but not enough to call a government. After four months of political wrangling, Nouri al-Maliki of the Shiʿi party Islamic Daʿwah formed a coalition government that included both Arabs and Kurds. Talabani, who was reelected as president…

Fine Gael, centrist political party that has provided the major political opposition to the Fianna Fáil party in Ireland. Fine Gael was founded in September 1933 in the amalgamation of Cumann na nGaedheal (“Party of the Irish”)—the party of William Thomas Cosgrave, first president of the Irish Free

Society of United Irishmen, Irish political organization formed in October 1791 by Theobald Wolfe Tone, James Napper Tandy, and Thomas Russell to achieve Roman Catholic emancipation and (with Protestant cooperation) parliamentary reform. British attempts to suppress the society caused its

United Kingdom, island country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe. The United Kingdom comprises the whole of the island of Great Britain—which contains England, Wales, and Scotland—as well as the northern portion of the island of Ireland. The name Britain is sometimes used to

United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), British political party founded in 1993. It espouses a populist libertarian philosophy centred on the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union. The party has its roots in the Anti-Federalist League, a group led by London School of Economics

infrared telescope: …an infrared telescope is the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT), which has a 3.8-metre (12.5-foot) mirror made of Cer-Vit, a glass ceramic that has a very low coefficient of expansion. This instrument, located at the Mauna Kea Observatories, is configured in a Cassegrain design and employs a thin monolithic primary…

Brazil: Independence of Brazil: …designated the Portuguese dominions the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, thus making Brazil coequal with Portugal. Dom João’s mother died in 1816, whereupon he ascended to the throne.

Elizabeth Sanderson Haldane: …trustee (1913–37) of Andrew Carnegie’s United Kingdom Trust, which she induced to rescue the Sadler’s Wells Theatre and Ballet (London) from penury. In addition, she was the first woman to be justice of the peace in Scotland (appointed 1920).

red, white, and blue flag in which are combined the Crosses of St. George (England), St. Andrew (Scotland), and St. Patrick (Ireland). Initially the Union Flag was called a jack only when it was flown at the bowsprit of British naval vessels, but it was commonly called the Union Jack by the late

United Kingdom: Ancient Britain: Archaeologists working in Norfolk in the early 21st century discovered stone tools that suggest the presence of humans in Britain from about 800,000 to 1 million years ago. These startling discoveries underlined the extent to which archaeological research is responsible for any knowledge of…

League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), one of the oldest and largest Latino organizations in the United States. Since its founding in 1929, it has focused on education, employment, and civil rights for Hispanics. The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) was formally

Nationalist Party, political party that governed all or part of mainland China from 1928 to 1949 and subsequently ruled Taiwan under Chiang Kai-shek and his successors for most of the time since then. Originally a revolutionary league working for the overthrow of the Chinese monarchy, the

Denmark: The Right and the Left: …in 1870 to form the United Left (Forenede Venstre), which in 1872 secured a majority in the Folketing. The Left demanded a return to the June constitution of 1849 as well as a number of other reforms, such as making the government responsible to the parliament instead of to the…

Communist Party of Spain: Subsequently, the PCE joined the United Left (Izquierda Unida), a coalition of left-wing and ecologist parties. Although failing to attract wide support, the United Left did succeed in becoming Spain’s third largest national party.

Assam People’s Council: …a free hand to the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), a militant separatist group whose violent activities had increased dramatically in the state after the AGP took power. The revelations of direct links between the AGP ministers and the ULFA led New Delhi to dismiss the government in Assam…

Lutheranism: North American Lutheranism: …three German-language synods formed the United Lutheran Church in America (ULCA). In 1930 the Joint Synod of Ohio, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa, and the Buffalo Synod formed the American Lutheran Church (German). In 1960 the American Lutheran Church (German) merged with the United Evangelical Lutheran Church (Danish) and…

Dato’ Onn bin Jaafar: …the union, Onn founded the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), a political party representing purely Malay interests. When the plan for a union was eventually withdrawn, the sultan of Johore appointed him prime minister (Mentri Besar) of his state, and in February 1948 he became Member for Home Affairs for…

United Methodist Church, in the United States, a major Protestant church formed in 1968 in Dallas, Texas, by the union of the Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church. It developed from the British Methodist revival movement led by John Wesley that was taken to the American

Methodism: Origins: After the schism, English Methodism, with vigorous outposts in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, rapidly developed as a church, even though it was reluctant to perpetuate the split from the Church of England. Its system centred in the Annual Conference (at first of ministers only, later thrown open to…

Mexico, country of southern North America and the third largest country in Latin America, after Brazil and Argentina. Mexican society is characterized by extremes of wealth and poverty, with a limited middle class wedged between an elite cadre of landowners and investors on the one hand and masses

United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), American labour union, founded in 1890, that engaged in bitter, though often successful, disputes with coal mine operators for safe working conditions, fair pay, and other worker benefits. An industrial union, the UMWA includes miners in bituminous and

Trinidad and Tobago: Independent Trinidad and Tobago: …the main opposition party, the United National Congress (UNC), which was supported chiefly by Indo-Trinidadians; the two Tobago seats went to the NAR, led by Robinson. The latter gave his support to the UNC, whose leader, Basdeo Panday, thus became prime minister. Panday was the first Indo-Trinidadian prime minister, and…

Cambodia: The 1990s: …Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (Funcinpec), a royalist political faction sponsored by Prince Sihanouk, who had returned home in 1992 after 12 years of residence in China and North Korea. The incumbent Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) and the former prime minister, Hun Sen, refused to accept the results of the…

Southern Africa: Malawi and Zambia: …Hastings Kamuzu Banda and the United National Independence Party (UNIP) under Kenneth Kaunda won the first universal suffrage elections in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia, respectively, and led them into independence as Malawi and Zambia.

Georgia: Rose Revolution: …Saakashvili, the head of the United National Movement (UNM), lead a peaceable uprising—termed the “Rose Revolution”—that drove Shevardnadze from power. Saakashvili was elected president the following year and immediately opened a campaign against corruption, sought to stabilize the economy, and attempted to secure the country against ethnic strife.

Sri Lanka: Political process: …in Sri Lanka, the conservative United National Party (UNP) and the more liberal Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) have dominated the political arena since independence. A splinter party from the SLFP, known as the Sri Lanka Podujana Peremuna party (SLPP), emerged as a political force after parliament member and former…

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam: Under Jayalalithaa’s leadership: …election, allying itself with the United National Progressive Alliance (UNPA), led by leftist parties, and won 9 seats. In the 2014 Lok Sabha polls, the AIADMK had its best outing yet, garnering 37 seats and becoming the third largest party in the chamber.

United Nations (UN), international organization established on October 24, 1945. The United Nations (UN) was the second multipurpose international organization established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and membership. Its predecessor, the League of Nations, was created by the

Roméo Dallaire: …Dallaire took command of the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR). As a lightly armed force of approximately 2,500 troops, UNAMIR was given a mandate to oversee the peace agreement ending a civil war. The death of the Rwandan president, however, whose plane was shot down over Kigali airport in…

United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF), United Nations (UN) organization established by the General Assembly in 1966 and fully operational in 1974. Headquartered in New York City, the UNDF, a semi-autonomous unit of the United Nations Development Programme, provides grants and loans to the

UNICEF, special program of the United Nations (UN) devoted to aiding national efforts to improve the health, nutrition, education, and general welfare of children. UNICEF was created in 1946 to provide relief to children in countries devastated by World War II. After 1950 the fund directed its

Battle of the Chosin Reservoir: Crossing into North Korea: …Inch’ŏn in September 1950, the United Nations Command (UNC), under the direction of U.S. Pres. Harry S. Truman’s administration and the UN General Assembly, pursued the remnants of the communist Korean People’s Army into North Korea. On the orders of Gen. Douglas MacArthur, commander of all allied forces in the…

rape: Rape as a weapon of war: …1993 the United Nations (UN) Commission on Human Rights (replaced in 2006 by the UN Human Rights Council) declared systematic rape and military sexual slavery to be crimes against humanity punishable as violations of women’s human rights. In 1995 the UN’s Fourth World Conference on Women specified that rape by…

desertification: Causes and consequences of desertification: In 1977, at the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) in Nairobi, Kenya, representatives and delegates first contemplated the worldwide effects of desertification. The conference explored the causes and contributing factors and also possible local and regional solutions to the phenomenon. In addition, the delegates considered the varied consequences…

Chemical Weapons Convention: …CWC was adopted by the United Nations Conference on Disarmament on September 3, 1992, and the treaty was opened to signature by all states on January 13, 1993. The CWC entered into force on April 29, 1997. As of 2013, the only countries that had neither signed nor acceded to…

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), conference held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992), to reconcile worldwide economic development with protection of the environment. The Earth Summit was the largest gathering of world leaders as of 1992, with 117 heads of

San Francisco Conference, international meeting (April 25–June 26, 1945) that established the United Nations. The basic principles of a worldwide organization that would embrace the political objectives of the Allies had been proposed at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 and reaffirmed at the

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the first United Nations (UN) conference that focused on international environmental issues. The conference, held in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5 to 16, 1972, reflected a growing interest in conservation issues worldwide and laid the foundation

map: Nomenclature: …activities are coordinated by the United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), permanent organ of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly, established in 1964 to promote trade, investment, and development in developing countries. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, UNCTAD has approximately 190 members.

United Nations: Development of international law: …the First and the Second United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The initial conference approved conventions on the continental shelf, fishing, the high seas, and territorial waters and contiguous zones, all of which were ratified by the mid-1960s. During the 1970s it came to be accepted…

Law of the Sea, branch of international law concerned with public order at sea. Much of this law is codified in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, signed Dec. 10, 1982. The convention, described as a “constitution for the oceans,” represents an attempt to codify international law

desertification: The global reach of desertification: According to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the lives of 250 million people are affected by desertification, and as many as 135 million people may be displaced by desertification by 2045, making it one of the most severe environmental challenges facing humanity.

military law: Legal trends: …human rights convention and the United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights expressly recognize that the right of free association may lawfully be restricted in the armed forces. Nevertheless, some countries (notably the Netherlands) permit soldiers to form unions in order to safeguard and improve their working and economic…

United Nations Decade for Women, United Nations program that began on January 1, 1976, the goal of which was the promotion of equal rights and opportunities for women around the world. Included in this decade were three major meetings for women. The first UN women’s conference, held in Mexico City

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, statement adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly on December 9, 1975. In essence, the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons states that all persons with disabilities have the same rights as other persons. Prior to

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), agency of the United Nations (UN) Secretariat originally established in 1972 to coordinate international relief activities to countries struck by natural or other disasters. It is headed by a disaster relief coordinator who

United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), organization that offers financial and technical support to programs that are designed to encourage the advancement and empowerment of women and gender equality. The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) was established in 1976 in

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations (UN) organization formed in 1965 to help countries eliminate poverty and achieve sustainable human development, an approach to economic growth that emphasizes improving the quality of life of all citizens while conserving the environment

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), agency of the United Nations (UN) Secretariat originally established in 1972 to coordinate international relief activities to countries struck by natural or other disasters. It is headed by a disaster relief coordinator who

United Nations: Economic reconstruction: …Commission for Europe and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. Similar commissions were established for Latin America in 1948 and for Africa in 1958. The major work of economic reconstruction, however, was delegated to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), one of the major…

UNESCO, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that was outlined in a constitution signed November 16, 1945. The constitution, which entered into force in 1946, called for the promotion of international collaboration in education, science, and culture. The agency’s permanent headquarters are

Egypt: The Nasser regime: …by the presence of the UNEF stationed on the Egyptian side. In the Arab summit conferences of 1964 and 1965, Nasser had counseled restraint, but in 1966 events eluded his control. Palestinian incursions against Israel were launched with greater frequency and intensity from bases in Jordan, Lebanon, and, especially, Syria.…

Michelle Bachelet: President: …UN Women (formally called the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women). She was again the candidate of the center-left bloc in the 2013 Chilean presidential election. Although she finished at the top of the nine-candidate field in the first round of voting in November, she…

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), organization established in 1972 to guide and coordinate environmental activities within the United Nations (UN) system. UNEP promotes international cooperation on environmental issues, provides guidance to UN organizations, and, through its scientific

United Nations Foundation, public charity created in 1998 to assist the United Nations (UN) and its humanitarian efforts through advocacy, partnerships, community building, and fundraising. It strives to connect people, ideas, and resources (from governments, businesses, and international

global warming policy: The UN Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol: …by two major treaties: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of 1992 and the associated 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC (named for the city in Japan where it was concluded).

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), trust fund under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Established in 1969, the UNFPA is the largest international source of assistance for population programs and the leading United Nations (UN) organization for the

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), department of the United Nations (UN) created to aid and protect human rights. The UN General Assembly Resolution 48/141 created the OHCHR in its present form in 1993. The OHCHR works with all levels of government

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), organization established as the successor to the International Refugee Organization (IRO; 1946–52) by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 1951 to provide legal and political protection for refugees until they could acquire

gas chamber: The United Nations Human Rights Committee has considered California’s gas chamber torturous and inhumane.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), international UN development agency, based in Vienna, that was established by the General Assembly on January 1, 1967. UNIDO’s governing body, the General Conference, meets every two years and determines policy and approves the budget. It

United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), United Nations organization established in 1965 to provide high-priority training and research projects to help facilitate the UN objectives of world peace and security and of economic and social progress. A Board of Trustees of up to 30

Lebanon: Civil war: …to the establishment of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)—a peacekeeping force meant to secure Israeli withdrawal and support the return of Lebanese authority in the south—as well as to the creation of the South Lebanese Army (SLA)—a militia led by Saad Haddad and armed and financed by Israel…

UNICEF, special program of the United Nations (UN) devoted to aiding national efforts to improve the health, nutrition, education, and general welfare of children. UNICEF was created in 1946 to provide relief to children in countries devastated by World War II. After 1950 the fund directed its

United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency (UNKRA), economic-rehabilitation program (1950–58) established to aid South Korea in recovering from the disruption caused by the 1945 partition creating the two Korean republics. In addition to problems of economic reconstruction, much attention was

United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), eight global policy goals designed to end extreme poverty worldwide by 2015. The eight goals—the product of a working committee made up of the World Bank, the World Health Organisation, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development,

Laayoune: …UN peacekeeping mission known as MINURSO (United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara). It has nonetheless been the site of several clashes between Sahrawis and Moroccan authorities, perhaps most notably with the forceful dismantling in 2010 of the Gdeim Izik protest camp, which had been erected to protest…

Ethiopia: War with Eritrea: …for a UN mission (United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia; UNMEE) to monitor the cease-fire and deploy troops in a buffer zone between the two countries while the border was being demarcated. A peace agreement signed in Algeria in December ended the conflict, although relations between Ethiopia and…

Serbia: Government: The United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) then took over the administration of the territory. The Vojvodina regained nominal autonomous status in 2002, but some local groups continued to call for a more extensive form of self-rule. In 2008 Kosovo declared independence; although the United States…

Central African Republic: Patassé and the quest for democracy: …sent in troops under the UN Mission to the Central African Republic (MINURCA). MINURCA’s mission was to maintain stability and security, mediate between rival factions in the country, and provide advice and support in the 1998 legislative elections.

Bretton Woods Conference, meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire (July 1–22, 1944), during World War II to make financial arrangements for the postwar world after the expected defeat of Germany and Japan. The conference was attended by experts noncommittally representing 44 states or governments,

United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC), successor commission to the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), charged with disarming Iraq of its weapons of mass destruction and monitoring Iraq’s compliance with United Nations-mandated weapons restrictions. The

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), agency of the United Nations (UN) Secretariat originally established in 1972 to coordinate international relief activities to countries struck by natural or other disasters. It is headed by a disaster relief coordinator who

map: International organizations: The United Nations Office of Cartography plays an important role in all of the activities noted above. It maintains records of progress on the International Map of the World and performs related services formerly handled by the Central Bureau of the IMW. Technical assistance in the…

UNOSOM, either of two United Nations (UN) peacekeeping and humanitarian missions—UNOSOM I (1992–93) and UNOSOM II (1993–95)—designed to alleviate problems in Somalia created by civil war and drought. UNOSOM I was dispatched by the UN in April 1992 to monitor the cease-fire that was in effect at the

Dizzy Gillespie: …was the leader of the United Nations Orchestra, which featured such Gillespie protégés as Paquito D’Rivera and Arturo Sandoval. Gillespie’s memoirs, To Be, or Not…to Bop, were published in 1979.

Palestine: The early postwar period: …for the formation of the UN Palestine Commission—which it tasked with selecting and overseeing provisional councils of government for the Jewish and Arab states by April 1, 1948—and set the date for the termination of the mandate no later than August 1, 1948. (The British later announced that the mandate…

Boutros Boutros-Ghali: He supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, a movement to establish citizens’ representation at the UN, from its founding in April 2007.

United Nations: Sanctions and military action: The resulting Brahimi Report (formally the Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations), issued in 2000, outlined the need for strengthening the UN’s capacity to undertake a wide variety of missions. Among the many recommendations of the report was that the UN maintain brigade-size forces…

Cyprus: Security: …peacekeeping troops in Cyprus (UNFICYP) who police the demilitarized zone that divides the country; the United Kingdom also maintains two sovereign military bases in Cyprus.

United Nations Peacekeeping Forces, international armed forces first used in 1948 to observe cease-fires in Kashmir and Palestine. Although not specifically mentioned in the United Nations (UN) Charter, the use of international forces as a buffer between warring parties pending troop withdrawals

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), trust fund under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Established in 1969, the UNFPA is the largest international source of assistance for population programs and the leading United Nations (UN) organization for the

United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), administrative body (1943–47) for an extensive social-welfare program that assisted nations ravaged by World War II. Created on Nov. 9, 1943, by a 44-nation agreement, its operations concentrated on distributing relief supplies, such

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), subsidiary agency created by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 1949 to provide relief, health, and education services for Palestinians who lost both their homes and their means of livelihood during the

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), autonomous United Nations body established in 1963 to conduct research into the problems and policies of social and economic development. UNRISD is dependent on voluntary contributions from governments, from other UN organizations,

United Nations Resolution 1701, resolution passed by the United Nations (UN) Security Council on August 11, 2006, during the 34-day Lebanon War in 2006. The resolution, whose adoption by the warring parties led to the end of hostilities, called for an immediate ceasefire, the deployment of Lebanese

United Nations Resolution 181, resolution passed by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 1947 that called for the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states, with the city of Jerusalem as a corpus separatum (Latin: “separate entity”) to be governed by a special international regime.

United Nations Resolution 242, resolution of the United Nations (UN) Security Council adopted on November 22, 1967, in an effort to secure a just and lasting peace in the wake of the Six-Day (June) War, fought primarily between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The Israelis supported the

United Nations Resolution 338, resolution of the United Nations (UN) Security Council that called for an end to the Yom Kippur (October) War of 1973, in which Israel faced an offensive led by Egypt and Syria. The ambiguous three-line resolution, which was adopted unanimously (with one abstention)

Secretariat, the organ that administers and coordinates the activities of the United Nations. It is headed by the UN secretary-general. The Secretariat influences the work of the United Nations to a degree much greater than indicated in the UN Charter. This influence largely results from the fact

UNSCOM (United Nations Special Commission), United Nations inspection agency established in April 1991 in the wake of the Persian Gulf War to ensure the elimination of Iraq’s supposed ballistic missiles and weapons of mass destruction. The commission was to monitor the elimination of any discovered

Palestine: The early postwar period: …Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommended that the region be partitioned into an Arab and a Jewish state, which, however, should retain an economic union. Jerusalem and its environs were to be international. These recommendations were substantially adopted by a two-thirds majority of the UN General Assembly in Resolution…

Namibia: Independence: The United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) opened operations in April 1989. After a disastrous start—in which South African forces massacred PLAN forces seeking to report to UNTAG to be confined to designated areas—UNTAG slowly gained control over the registration and electoral process in most areas.

Cambodia: The 1990s: …under the control of a United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia that would monitor progress toward conducting elections, temporarily run several government ministries, and safeguard human rights.

United Nations: According to its Charter, the UN aims:

Allied powers: …the wartime members of the United Nations, the signatories to the Declaration of the United Nations. The original signers of January 1, 1942, were Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Luxembourg

flag consisting of a blue field incorporating, in white, a central map of the Earth framed by olive branches. The flag’s width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3 or, alternatively, 3 to 5.In April 1945, near the end of World War II, 50 Allied nations gathered in San Francisco. The lapel button worn by

United Nations Security Council: History: …force known as the hybrid United Nations/African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID), authorized by the Security Council in July 2007. Large-scale UNAMID troop deployment did not begin until 2008, some five years after the violence began, and obstruction by the government of Sudanese Pres. Omar al-Bashir limited the mission’s effectiveness.