education

Table of Contents

Introduction & Top Questions
Education in primitive and early civilized cultures
- Prehistoric and primitive cultures
- Education in the earliest civilizations
  - The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China
    - Egypt
    - Mesopotamia
    - North China
  - The New World civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas
    - The Maya
    - The Aztecs
    - The Incas
Education in classical cultures
- Ancient India
  - The Hindu tradition
  - The introduction of Buddhist influences
  - Classical India
  - Indian influences on Asia
- Ancient China
  - The Zhou period
    - Xi (Western) Zhou (1046–771 bce)
    - Dong (Eastern) Zhou (770–256 bce)
  - The Qin–Han period
    - Qin autocracy (221–206 bce)
    - Scholarship under the Han (206 bce–220 ce)
    - Introduction of Buddhism
- Ancient Hebrews
- Ancient Greeks
  - Origins
  - Sparta
  - Athens
    - Education of youth
    - Higher education
  - The Hellenistic Age
    - The institutions
    - Physical education
    - The primary school
    - Secondary education
    - Higher education
- Ancient Romans
  - Early Roman education
  - Roman adoption of Hellenistic education
    - Roman modifications
    - Education of youth
    - Higher education
  - Education in the later Roman Empire
Education in Persian, Byzantine, early Russian, and Islamic civilizations
- Ancient Persia
- The Byzantine Empire
  - Stages of education
    - Elementary education
    - Secondary education
    - Higher education
  - Professional education
- Early Russian education: Kiev and Muscovy
- The Islamic Era
  - Influences on Muslim education and culture
  - Aims and purposes of Muslim education
  - Organization of education
  - Major periods of Muslim education and learning
  - Influence of Islamic learning on the West
Europe in the Middle Ages
- The background of early Christian education
  - From the beginnings to the 4th century
  - From the 5th to the 8th century
  - The Irish and English revivals
- The Carolingian renaissance and its aftermath
  - The cultural revival under Charlemagne and his successors
  - Influences of the Carolingian renaissance abroad
  - Education of the laity in the 9th and 10th centuries
- The medieval renaissance
  - Changes in the schools and philosophies
    - Monastic schools
    - Urban schools
    - New curricula and philosophies
    - Thomist philosophy
  - The development of the universities
    - The Italian universities
    - The French universities
    - The English universities
    - Universities elsewhere in Europe
    - General characteristics of medieval universities
  - Lay education and the lower schools
Education in Asian civilizations: c. 700 to the eve of Western influence
- India
  - The foundations of Muslim education
  - The Mughal period
- China
  - The Tang dynasty (618–907 ce)
  - The Song (960–1279)
  - The Mongol period (1206–1368)
  - The Ming period (1368–1644)
  - The Manchu period (1644–1911/12)
- Japan
  - The ancient period to the 12th century
  - The feudal period (1192–1867)
    - Education of the warriors
    - Education in the Tokugawa era
    - Effect of early Western contacts
European Renaissance and Reformation
- The channels of development in Renaissance education
  - The Muslim influence
  - The secular influence
- The humanistic tradition in Italy
  - Early influences
  - Emergence of the new gymnasium
  - Nonscholastic traditions
- The humanistic tradition of northern and western Europe
  - Dutch humanism
  - Juan Luis Vives
  - The early English humanists
- Education in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation
  - Luther and the German Reformation
  - The English Reformation
  - The French Reformation
  - The Calvinist Reformation
  - The Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation
  - The legacy of the Reformation
European education in the 17th and 18th centuries
- The social and historical setting
  - The new scientism and rationalism
  - The Protestant demand for universal elementary education
- Education in 17th-century Europe
  - Central European theories and practices
    - The pedagogy of Ratke
    - The pedagogy of Comenius
    - The schools of Gotha
  - French theories and practices
    - Courtly education
    - The teaching congregations
    - Female education
  - English theories and practices
    - The Puritan reformers
    - Royalist education
  - The academies
- Education in 18th-century Europe
  - Education during the Enlightenment
    - John Locke’s empiricism and education as conduct
    - Giambattista Vico, critic of Cartesianism
    - The condition of the schools and universities
  - The background and influence of Pietism
    - August Hermann Francke
    - Johann Julius Hecker
  - The background and influence of naturalism
    - The Sensationists
    - The Rousseauists
  - The influence of nationalism
    - France
    - National education under enlightened rulers
    - England
- European offshoots in the New World
  - Spanish and Portuguese America
  - French Québec
  - British America
    - New England
    - The new academies
    - The middle colonies
    - The Southern colonies
    - Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces.
Western education in the 19th century
- The social and historical setting
- The early reform movement: the new educational philosophers
  - Pestalozzi
    - The pedagogy of Pestalozzi
    - The influence of Pestalozzi
  - Froebel and the kindergarten movement
    - The pedagogy of Froebel
    - The kindergarten movement
  - Herbart
    - The psychology and pedagogy of Herbart
    - The Herbartians
  - Other German theorists
  - French theorists
  - Spencer’s scientism
- Development of national systems of education
  - Germany
    - Humboldt’s reforms
    - Developments after 1815
    - Girls’ schools
    - The new German universities
  - France
    - Development of state education
    - Secondary education
  - England
    - Elementary Education Act
    - Secondary and higher education
  - Russia
  - The United States
    - The educational awakening
    - Secondary education
    - Education for females
    - Higher education
  - The British dominions
    - Canada
    - Australia
    - New Zealand
- The spread of Western educational practices to Asian countries
  - India
    - Education under the East India Company
    - Indian universities
  - Japan
    - The Meiji Restoration and the assimilation of Western civilization
    - Establishment of a national system of education
    - The conservative reaction
    - Establishment of nationalistic education systems
    - Promotion of industrial education
Education in the 20th century
- Social and historical background
- Major intellectual movements
  - Influence of psychology and other fields on education
  - Traditional movements
  - New foundations
    - Progressive education
    - Child-centred education
    - Scientific-realist education
    - Social-reconstructionist education
- Major trends and problems
- Western patterns of education
  - The United Kingdom
    - Early 19th to early 20th century
    - Education Act of 1944
    - The comprehensive movement
    - Further education
  - Germany
    - Imperial Germany
    - Weimar Republic
    - Nazi Germany
    - Changes after World War II
  - France
    - The Third Republic
    - Changes after World War II
  - Other European countries
    - Italy
    - The Netherlands
    - Switzerland
    - Sweden
  - The United States
    - Expansion of American education
    - Curriculum reforms
    - Federal involvement in local education
    - Changes in higher education
    - Professional organizations
  - Canada
    - Canadian educational reforms
    - The administration of public education
  - Australia and New Zealand
    - Australia
    - New Zealand
Revolutionary patterns of education
- Russia: from tsarism to communism
  - Before 1917
  - 1917–30
  - The Stalinist years, 1931–53
  - The Khrushchev reforms
  - From Brezhnev to Gorbachev
  - Perestroika and education
- China: from Confucianism to communism
  - The modernization movement
  - Education in the republic
  - Education under the Nationalist government
  - Education under communism
  - Post-Mao education
  - Communism and the intellectuals
Patterns of education in non-Western or developing countries
- Japan
  - Education at the beginning of the century
  - Education to 1940
  - Education changes during World War II
  - Education after World War II
- South Asia
  - Pre-independence period
  - The postindependence period in India
  - The postindependence period in Pakistan
  - The postindependence period in Bangladesh
  - The postindependence period in Sri Lanka
- Africa
  - Ethiopia
  - Liberia
  - South Africa
  - General influences and policies of the colonial powers
  - Education in Portuguese colonies and former colonies
  - German educational policy in Africa
  - Education in British colonies and former colonies
  - Education in French colonies and former colonies
  - Education in Belgian colonies and former colonies
  - Problems and tasks of African education in the late 20th century
- The Middle East
  - Colonialism and its consequences
  - The second half of the 20th century
  - The Islamic revival
  - Migration and the brain drain
- Latin America
  - The heritage of independence
  - Administration
  - Primary education and literacy
  - Secondary education
  - Higher education
  - Reform trends
- Southeast Asia
  - Myanmar
  - Malaysia and Singapore
  - Indonesia
  - Philippines
  - Thailand
  - Cambodia
  - Laos
  - Vietnam
Global trends in education
- The development and growth of national education systems
  - Education and social cohesion
  - Education and social conflict
  - Education and personal growth
  - Education and civil society
  - Education and economic development
- Global enrollment trends since the mid-20th century
  - Primary-level school enrollments
  - Secondary-level school enrollments
  - Tertiary-level school enrollments
  - Other developments in formal education
  - Literacy as a measure of success
- Global commitments to education and equality of opportunity
  - Access to education
  - Implications for socioeconomic status
  - Social consequences of education in developing countries
  - The role of the state
  - Social and family interaction
  - Alternative forms of education

References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics

Images & Videos

a classroom in Brazil

Peter I the Great

University of Heidelberg

courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan

Juan Luis Vives

Madame de Maintenon

August Hermann Francke

illustration of Émile from Émile; or, On Education

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Wilhelm von Humboldt

William Wilberforce

Margaret Thatcher

Vladimir Lenin; Russian Revolution

William V.S. Tubman

Educating India's large population: Challenges and solutions

Kentucky: African American school, early 1900s

Page from the Codex Mendoza (begun 1541) depicting Aztec education of boys and girls.

Students using computers in a classroom.

The unrewarding role of the public schoolmaster as depicted in an American lithograph from the 1840s.

Understand the application of augmented reality in an industrial setting to bring knowledge and training closer

Hear Australian educators talk about the challenges with gifted children in their early years of formal education

Learn about the use of modern technology in monitoring infant brain waves for signs of distress

Learn how school counselors assist students with everything from class schedules to mental health

Learn how school psychiatrists work to meet students' learning and emotional needs

Learn how a school success coach helps students achieve their academic and personal goals

Learn how superintendents meet with students, the community, and the state to facilitate school programs

Learn how special education teachers structure their days around preparation

Learn how an admissions counselor recruits students and assists with their applications

Learn about STEM education and its unique approach to teaching and learning

education: Media

Videos

Educating India's large population: Challenges and solutions

Educating India's large population: Challenges and solutions

Learn about India's efforts to improve its education system, 2009 film.

Video: Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail © Neeraj Charurvedi/Dreamstime.com

Understand the application of augmented reality in an industrial setting to bring knowledge and training closer

Understand the application of augmented reality in an industrial setting to bring knowledge and training closer

Learn about augmented reality as applied to industry.

Video: © Open University (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Hear Australian educators talk about the challenges with gifted children in their early years of formal education

Hear Australian educators talk about the challenges with gifted children in their early years of formal education

Australian educators discussing issues related to the early education of gifted children.

Video: © University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn about the use of modern technology in monitoring infant brain waves for signs of distress

Learn about the use of modern technology in monitoring infant brain waves for signs of distress

Infant brain waves being monitored for signs of distress at a neonatal intensive...

Video: University College Cork, Ireland (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how school counselors assist students with everything from class schedules to mental health

Learn how school counselors assist students with everything from class schedules to mental health

Job description of a school counselor.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how school psychiatrists work to meet students' learning and emotional needs

Learn how school psychiatrists work to meet students' learning and emotional needs

Job description of a school psychologist.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how a school success coach helps students achieve their academic and personal goals

Learn how a school success coach helps students achieve their academic and personal goals

Job description of a school success coach.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how superintendents meet with students, the community, and the state to facilitate school programs

Learn how superintendents meet with students, the community, and the state to facilitate school programs

Job description of a school superintendent.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how special education teachers structure their days around preparation

Learn how special education teachers structure their days around preparation

Job description of a special education teacher.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn how an admissions counselor recruits students and assists with their applications

Learn how an admissions counselor recruits students and assists with their applications

Job description of an admissions counselor.

Video: CandidCareer.com (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Learn about STEM education and its unique approach to teaching and learning

Learn about STEM education and its unique approach to teaching and learning

An overview of STEM education.

Video: © BBHCSD Media (A Britannica Publishing Partner)

Images

a classroom in Brazil

a classroom in Brazil

Students and an instructor in a classroom in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.

© Joa Souza/Shutterstock.com

Margaret Mead

Margaret Mead

Margaret Mead.

Cornell Capa/Magnum

Hesiod

Hesiod

Hesiod, detail of a mosaic by Monnus, 3rd century; in the Rhenish State Museum, Trier,...

Courtesy of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Trier, Ger.

Plato

Plato

Marble portrait bust of Plato, from an original of the 4th century bce;...

© DeAgostini/SuperStock

Aristotle

Aristotle

Detail of a Roman copy (2nd century bce) of a...

© A. Dagli Orti—De Agostini/Getty Images

Virgil

Virgil

Virgil (centre) holding a scroll with a quotation from the Aeneid, with...

Courtesy of the Musée Le Bardo, Tunis

Ivan IV

Ivan IV, icon, late 16th century; in the National Museum, Copenhagen.

The National Museum of Denmark, Department of Ethnography

Peter I the Great

Peter I the Great

Peter I the Great, portrait by Aert de Gelder (1645–1727); in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam (object no. SK-A-116)

University of Heidelberg

University of Heidelberg

University of Heidelberg's Old University building, also known as the Domus Wilhelmina,...

© Heidelberger Kongress und Tourismus GmbH

courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan

courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan

The courtyard of the madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan, Cairo, 1356–62.

GEKS

Juan Luis Vives

Juan Luis Vives

Juan Luis Vives, engraving by Jean-Jacques Boissard from Icones quinquaginta,...

Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther

Martin Luther, oil on panel by Lucas Cranach, 1529; in the Uffizi, Florence.

Photos.com/Getty Images

John Calvin

John Calvin

John Calvin.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-DIG-pga-08225)

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon, oil painting by an unknown artist; in the National Portrait Gallery,...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Madame de Maintenon

Madame de Maintenon

Madame de Maintenon, detail of a portrait by Pierre Mignard; in the Louvre, Paris.

Giraudon—Art Resource/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

John Locke

John Locke

The philosopher John Locke, oil on canvas by Herman Verelst, 1689; in the National...

Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group/REX/Shutterstock.com

August Hermann Francke

August Hermann Francke

August Hermann Francke, engraving.

BBC Hulton Picture Library

illustration of Émile from Émile; or, On Education

illustration of Émile from Émile; or, On Education

Illustration of Émile from Émile; or, On Education (1762), by Jean-Jacques...

Photos.com/Getty Images

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, drawing in pastels by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour, 1753; in...

Courtesy of the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire, Geneva; photograph, Jean Arlaud

Wilhelm von Humboldt

Wilhelm von Humboldt

Wilhelm, Freiherr (baron) von Humboldt, oil painting by F. Kruger.

Bruckmann/Art Resource, New York

Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold, detail of an oil painting by G.F. Watts; in the National Portrait...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Horace Mann

Horace Mann

American educator Horace Mann.

Courtesy of Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio

William Wilberforce

William Wilberforce

William Wilberforce, detail of an unfinished painting by Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1828;...

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Matthew Perry

Matthew Perry

Matthew Perry, detail of a Japanese watercolor, c. 1853; in the Chrysler Museum of...

The Chrysler Museum of Art, Norfolk, Virginia, Norfolk Newspapers' Art Trust Purchase and Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Victor Spark in Memory of their Son Donald, 52.55.2

Francis Parker

Francis Parker

Francis Parker.

Courtesy of Chicago History Museum

Margaret Thatcher

Margaret Thatcher

British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1983.

AP

Vladimir Lenin; Russian Revolution

Vladimir Lenin; Russian Revolution

Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd during the Russian Revolution of 1917.

© Photos.com/Getty Images

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin.

© Photos.com/Getty Images

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong, 1966.

Eastfoto

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi.

History Archive/REX/Shutterstock.com

Haile Selassie

Haile Selassie

Haile Selassie, 1967.

AP

William V.S. Tubman

William V.S. Tubman

William V.S. Tubman.

Camera Press/Pictorial Parade

Leopold II

Leopold II

Leopold II, portrait bust by Ottavio Giovannozzi, 1846; in the Uffizi, Florence.

Alinari/Art Resource, New York

Max Weber

Max Weber

Max Weber, 1918.

Leif Geiges

Karl Marx

Karl Marx

Karl Marx, c. 1870.

From Karl Marx's Oekonomische Lehren, by Karl Kautsky, 1887

Kentucky: African American school, early 1900s

Kentucky: African American school, early 1900s

African American school near Henderson, Kentucky, U.S., early 1900s.

National Child Labor Committee collection, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Page from the Codex Mendoza (begun 1541) depicting Aztec education of boys and girls.

Page from the Codex Mendoza (begun 1541) depicting Aztec education of boys and girls.

Photos.com/Thinkstock

Students using computers in a classroom.

Students using computers in a classroom.

© BananaStock

The unrewarding role of the public schoolmaster as depicted in an American lithograph from the 1840s.

The unrewarding role of the public schoolmaster as depicted in an American lithograph...

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

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