Douglas fir, (genus Pseudotsuga), genus of about six species of evergreentrees of the conifer family Pinaceae, native to western North America and eastern Asia. The trees are important timber trees, and the strong wood is used in boats, aircraft, and construction. Douglas firs are also grown as ornamentals and are common Christmas trees in North America.
Douglas fir trees have long, flat, spirally arranged needles that grow directly from the branch and completely surround it. Each yellow- or blue-green needle is borne singly and has a short stalk at the base and a grooved upper surface. Winter buds are brown, shiny, and pointed. The hanging oblong cones characteristically have three-pointed bracts (outer cone scales) that protrude from the cone scales. Cones mature in one season and retain their scales when they fall.
Douglas fir with conesDouglas fir tree (Pseudotsuga menziesii) with cones in North Cascades National Park, Washington.
The North American tree commonly known as Douglas fir is Pseudotsuga menziesii. It has several forms, one with reflexed bracts, that sometimes are considered to be separate species. These Douglas firs may reach heights in excess of 90 metres (295 feet) and have diameters of more than 4 metres (13 feet), but most contemporary stands are composed of trees that are much smaller because many old specimens have been logged. The species is one of the best timber trees in North America, as well as a popular ornamental and Christmas tree, and it is used for reforestation along the Pacific coast. Its seeds are produced first at the age of about 25 years and in large crops every 5 to 7 years.
The bigcone Douglas fir (P. macrocarpa), a smaller species important only for erosion control, bears cones 10 to 15 cm (about 4 to 6 inches) long.
The Mexican Douglas fir (P. lindleyana) is largely native to the Sierra Madre mountain ranges of Mexico. Its taxonomy is contentious, and it is sometimes considered a subspecies of P. menziesii.
A forest is a complex ecological system in which trees are the dominant life-form. A forest is nature’s most efficient ecosystem, with a high rate of photosynthesis affecting both plant and animal systems in a series of complex organic relationships. Forests can develop under various conditions, and the kind of soil, plant, and animal life differs according to the extremes of environmental influences.
What are the main types of forests?
There are three main types of forests, defined by latitude: taiga (boreal) forests, temperate forests, and tropical forests.
How are forests classified?
Forests are distinguished from each other according to species composition (which develops in part according to the age of the forest), the density of tree cover, soil types, and the geologic history of the forest region.
What are the minimum climate requirements for a forest ecosystem?
Tree-dominated forests can occur where the temperature rises to above 10 °C (50 °F) in the warmest months, and the annual precipitation is more than 200 mm (8 inches).
Boreal forestA coniferous taiga, or boreal forest, in Siberian mountains.
Forests can occur wherever the temperatures rise above 10 °C (50 °F) in the warmest months and the annual precipitation is more than 200 mm (8 inches). They can develop under a variety of conditions within these climatic limits, and the kind of soil, plant, and animal life differs according to the extremes of environmental influences.
In cool high-latitude subpolar regions, forests are dominated by hardy conifers such as pines (Pinus), spruces (Picea), and larches (Larix). In the Northern Hemisphere, these forests, called taiga, or boreal forests, have prolonged winters and between 250 and 500 mm (10 and 20 inches) of rainfall annually. Coniferous forests also cover mountains in many temperate parts of the world.
Adirondack MountainsMixed evergreen and hardwood forest cover the slopes of the Adirondack Mountains near Keene Valley, New York.
In more temperate high-latitude climates, mixed forests of both conifers and broad-leaved deciduous trees predominate. Broad-leaved deciduous forests develop in middle-latitude climates, where there is an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) for at least six months every year and annual precipitation is above 400 mm (16 inches). A growing period of 100 to 200 days allows deciduous forests to be dominated by oaks (Quercus), elms (Ulmus), birches (Betula), maples (Acer), beeches (Fagus), and aspens (Populus).
In the humid climates of the equatorial belt are tropical rainforests, which support incredible plant and animal biodiversity. There heavy rainfall supports evergreens that have broad leaves instead of needle leaves, as in cooler forests. Monsoon forests, which are the deciduous forests of tropical areas, are found in regions with a long dry season followed by an intense rainy season. In the lower latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, the temperate deciduous forest reappears.
Forest types are distinguished from each other according to species composition (which develops in part according to the age of the forest), the density of tree cover, type of soils found there, and the geologic history of the forest region. Altitude and unique meteorological conditions can also shape forest development (seecloud forest and elfin woodland).
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Soil conditions are distinguished according to depth, fertility, and the presence of perennial roots. Soil depth is important because it determines the extent to which roots can penetrate into the earth and, therefore, the amount of water and nutrients available to the trees. The soil in the taiga is sandy and drains quickly. Deciduous forests have brown soil, richer than sand in nutrients, and less porous. Rainforests and savanna woodlands often have a soil layer rich in iron or aluminum, which give the soils either a reddish or yellowish cast. Given the vast amounts of rain they receive, the soil is often poor in tropical rainforests, as the nutrients are quickly leached away.
The amount of water available to the soil, and therefore available for tree growth, depends on the amount of annual rainfall. Water may be lost by evaporation from the surface or by leaf transpiration. Evaporation and transpiration also control the temperature of the air in forests, which is always slightly warmer in cold months and cooler in warm months than the air in surrounding regions.
The density of tree cover influences the amount of both sunlight and rainfall reaching every forest layer. A full-canopied forest absorbs between 60 and 90 percent of available light, most of which is absorbed by the leaves for photosynthesis. The movement of rainfall into the forest is considerably influenced by leaf cover, which tends to slow the velocity of falling water, which penetrates down to the ground level by running down tree trunks or dripping from leaves. Water not absorbed by the tree roots for nutrition runs along root channels, so water erosion is therefore not a major factor in shaping forest topography.
Forests are among the most complex ecosystems in the world, and they exhibit extensive vertical stratification. Conifer forests have the simplest structure: a tree layer rising to about 30 meters (98 feet), a shrub layer that is spotty or even absent, and a ground layer covered with lichens, mosses, and liverworts. Deciduous forests are more complex; the tree canopy is divided into upper and lower stories, while rainforest canopies are divided into at least three strata. The forest floor in both of these forests consists of a layer of organic matter overlying mineral soil. The humus layer of tropical soils is affected by the high levels of heat and humidity, which quickly decompose whatever organic matter exists. Fungi on the soil surface play an important role in the availability and distribution of nutrients, particularly in the northern coniferous forests. Some species of fungi live in partnership with the tree roots, while others are parasitically destructive.
Animals that live in forests have highly developed hearing, and many are adapted for vertical movement through the environment. Because food other than ground plants is scarce, many ground-dwelling animals use forests only for shelter. In temperate forests, birds distribute plant seeds and insects aid in pollination, along with the wind. In tropical forests, fruit bats and birds effect pollination and seed dispersal. The forest is one of nature’s most efficient ecosystems, with a high rate of photosynthesis affecting both plant and animal systems in a series of complex organic relationships.
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