Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Grand Duchy of Lithuania, state, incorporating Lithuania proper, present-day Belarus, western Ukraine, and, at its greatest extent, parts of present-day Russia and Poland that became one of the most influential powers in eastern Europe (14th–16th century). Pressed by the crusading Teutonic and Livonian Knights, the Lithuanian tribes united under Mindaugas (d. 1263) and formed a strong, cohesive grand duchy during the reign of Gediminas (reigned 1316–41), who extended their frontiers across the upper Dvina River in the northeast to the Dnieper River in the southeast and to the Pripet Marshes in the south. After Gediminas’s death, two of his sons succeeded him: Kęstutis ruled Lithuania proper, preventing territorial encroachments from the German knights and their allies, while Algirdas, the titular grand duke, continued his father’s expansionist policies and, by conquering vast East Slavic and Tatar territories, stretched his domain from the Baltic to the Black Sea. By the end of the 14th century Lithuania was geographically the largest country in Europe.

The grand duchy was a multiethnic and multireligious state. The Lithuanians, founders of the state, retained their pagan religion longer than any other people in Europe; they did not officially accept Christianity until 1387. As a result of their incorporation of the Rus territories, the single largest ethnic group was eventually constituted by Ruthenians or Rus’ians (“people of Rus”): eastern Slavs who were ancestors of today’s Belarusians and Ukrainians. The Lithuanians not only reorganized their army, government administration, and legal and financial systems on Ruthenian models but also allowed the Ruthenian nobility to retain its Orthodox religion, its privileges, and its local authority. The Ruthenian language also became the de facto official one for administrative purposes, along with Latin. The expansion of the state beyond its original heartland of ethnographic Lithuania meant that ethnic Lithuanians were reduced to a minority in the country as a whole. In addition, the grand duchy contained significant minorities of Jews, Tatars, and Germans

The Lithuanians, however, also remained involved with their western neighbors; in 1385, under pressure from the hostile Teutonic Knights, the grand duke Jogaila (reigned 1377–1434) concluded a pact with Poland (Union of Krewo), agreeing to accept the Roman Catholic faith, marry the Polish queen, become king of Poland, and unite Poland and Lithuania under a single ruler. Jogaila took the Polish name Władysław II Jagiełło.

The Poles subsequently became a powerful force in Lithuania. The influence of the Roman Catholic Church as well as the aristocracy led to the adoption of Polish language and culture by the Lithuanian nobility, whether they were of Ruthenian or ethnic Lithuanian origin. Polish political culture was reflected in such phenomena as the establishment of a Sejm (parliament) on the Polish model; the granting of Polish privileges to Lithuanian nobility; and the setting up of German-origin (usually Magdeburg) law codes in the towns. The grand duchy, however, retained its autonomy, and, under the rule of Vytautas, Jogaila’s cousin and former political rival, who was named viceroy in 1392, it expanded to the Ugra and Oka rivers in the east, assumed a dominant role in Tatar and Russian political affairs, and became the most powerful state in eastern Europe. In 1410 Lithuania, led by Vytautas, also joined Poland and decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights (Battle of Tannenberg, also known as the Battle of Grunwald). As a result, it gained control of the northwestern territory of Samogitia (confirmed in 1422) and permanently reduced the German threat to Lithuania.

After Vytautas’s death (1430), Lithuania continued to have its own rulers, who were nominally subordinate to the Polish king but maintained Lithuania’s autonomy and its authority in eastern European affairs. When the Poles chose the 19-year-old Lithuanian grand duke Casimir as their king (1447), the two countries became somewhat more closely associated. Casimir, however, in an attempt to guarantee Lithuania’s independent status, granted a charter to the Lithuanian boyars who had proclaimed him grand duke (1447), verifying the nobles’ rights and privileges, giving them extensive authority over the peasantry, and thereby increasing their political power.

The authority of the grand duke subsequently declined, and, without its strong ruler, Lithuania was unable to prevent the Tatars from continually raiding its southern lands; nor could it stop Muscovy from annexing the principalities of Novgorod (1479) and Tver (1485), which had maintained close relations with Lithuania, from seizing one-third of Lithuania’s Ruthenian lands (1499–1503), and from capturing Smolensk (1514), which Lithuania had held since 1408.

During the 16th century Lithuania made major economic advances, including agrarian reforms, and generally appeared to maintain itself as a strong, dynamic state. When the wars between Muscovy and Lithuania were resumed in the Livonian War (1558–83), however, Lithuania’s resources were strained, and it was forced to appeal to Poland for help. The Poles refused unless the two states were formally united. Lithuanian resistance to a union was strong, but, when Sigismund II Augustus (grand duke of Lithuania 1544–72; king of Poland 1548–72) attached one-third of Lithuania’s territories (Volhynia, Kyiv, Bratslav, and Podlasia) to Poland, the Lithuanians had to accept the Union of Lublin (1569).

Under the terms of the union, Lithuania officially remained a distinct state, constituting an equal partner with Poland in a Polish-Lithuanian confederation. Nevertheless, it soon became the subordinate member of the new joint entity. The process of Polonization, which had begun during the period of the personal union, grew more intense; Lithuania’s administration organized itself on Polish models and pursued Polish policies. The Ruthenian language, which had been commonly used for legal and administrative purposes, was officially replaced by Polish in 1697. This measure simply ratified a long-existing status quo, as Polish had long since become the preferred language of the upper classes. Lithuania maintained its political connection with Poland from 1569 until the end of the 18th century, when the partitions of Poland placed it in the Russian Empire.