The Architects Collaborative (TAC), association of architects specializing in school buildings that was founded in 1946 in Cambridge, Mass., U.S., by Walter Gropius. The original partners included Norman Fletcher, John Harkness, Sarah Harkness, Robert McMillan, Louis McMillen, and Benjamin

Callicrates: The Architects of the Parthenon, by Rhys Carpenter, suggests that Callicrates was also responsible for the Hephaesteum, the temple of Poseidon at Sunion, the temple of Ares at Acharnae, and the temple at Rhamnous.

Western architecture: Germany: …orders by Wendel Dietterlin, entitled Architectura (1598), is filled with such Mannerist ornament. An architectural example is the Otto-Heinrichsbau added to the Gothic castle at Heidelberg (burned by the French in 1689). The three tall stories presented the usual verticality of northern architecture, but there was an understanding of the…

stagecraft: Early history: …lighting may be found in Architectura Civilis (1628; “Civil Architecture”), by Joseph Furttenbach (also spelled Furtenbach). He describes the use of oil lamps and candles set in a row along the front edge of the stage but out of sight of the audience, and he also mentions vertical rows of…

drawing: Artistic architectural drawings: There is one field in which drawing fulfills a distinct function: artistic architectural drawings are a final product as drawings, differing from the impersonal, exact plans and designs by the same “handwriting” character that typifies art drawings. In many cases, no execution…

bridge: …is the province of the engineer and that beauty is fully achieved only by the addition of architecture. The second idea, arguing from the standpoint of pure engineering, insists that bridges making the most efficient possible use of materials are by definition beautiful. The third case holds that architecture is…

industrial glass, solid material that is normally lustrous and transparent in appearance and that shows great durability under exposure to the natural elements. These three properties—lustre, transparency, and durability—make glass a favoured material for such household objects as windowpanes,

architecture, the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice of architecture is employed to fulfill both practical and expressive requirements, and thus it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic ends. Although these two

ornamentation, in architecture, applied embellishment in various styles that is a distinguishing characteristic of buildings, furniture, and household items. Ornamentation often occurs on entablatures, columns, and the tops of buildings and around entryways and windows, especially in the form of

Western painting: Pagan Roman paintings: …Second-style paintings are known as Architectural and show a threefold horizontal division of the wall into dado, central area, and cornice, combined with a triple vertical scheme of design that consists of a large central panel (in the main, intermediate horizontal area), framed by flanking columns and a pediment, and…

architectural rendering, branch of the pictorial arts and of architectural design whose special aim is to show, before buildings have been built, how they will look when completed. Modern renderings fall into two main categories: the quick perspective “design-study,” by which an architect records

architecture, the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice of architecture is employed to fulfill both practical and expressive requirements, and thus it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic ends. Although these two

Western architecture: France: …by Ledoux published in his Architecture considérée sous le rapport de l’art, des moeurs et de la législation (“Architecture Considered with Respect to Art, Customs, and Legislation”) in 1804, which contains his ideal city of Chaux, a plan for a whole city with buildings in which symbolism and abstraction are…

Bernard Forest de Belidor: …his fame rests primarily on Architecture hydraulique, in four volumes (1737–53), covering engineering mechanics, mills and waterwheels, pumps, harbours, and sea works.

cottage furniture: In The Architecture of Country Houses (1850), A.J. Downing recommended it for use in rural surroundings and favoured in particular the work of Edward Hennessy of Boston. He pointed out that a complete bedroom suite in this style could be purchased for the price of a…

Aldo Rossi: …publication L’architettura della città (The Architecture of the City), which quickly established him as a leading international theoretician. In the text he argued that, over the course of history, architecture has developed certain continuous forms and ideas, to the point that these are standard types in the collective memory…

Hiroshi Sugimoto: “The Architecture of Time” was presented at the Fruitmarket Gallery, Scotland’s highly regarded contemporary art space, and the Stills Gallery, the country’s leading centre for photography and digital media. The exhibition incorporated more than 30 large-scale images from Sugimoto’s Seascapes and Architecture series and a…

École des Beaux-Arts, school of fine arts founded (as the Académie Royale d’Architecture) in Paris in 1671 by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, minister of Louis XIV; it merged with the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture (founded in 1648) in 1793. The school offered instruction in drawing, painting,

African architecture, the architecture of Africa, particularly of sub-Saharan Africa. In North Africa, where Islam and Christianity had a significant influence, architecture predominates among the visual arts. Included here are the magnificent mosques built of mud in Djenné and Mopti in Mali, the

Islamic arts: Ottoman art: …(beyliks) that sprang up in Anatolia about 1300, after the collapse of Seljuq rule. In many ways, all the beyliks shared the same culture, but it was the extraordinary political and social attributes of the Ottomans that led them eventually to swallow up the other kingdoms, to conquer the Balkans,…

computer architecture, structure of a digital computer, encompassing the design and layout of its instruction set and storage registers. The architecture of a computer is chosen with regard to the types of programs that will be run on it (business, scientific, general-purpose, etc.). Its principal

ancient Iran: Art: …in an eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the empire and the Persians’ understanding of how that empire ought to function. Yet the whole was entirely Persian. Just as the Achaemenids were tolerant in matters of local government and custom as long as Persians controlled the general policy…

Mesopotamian art and architecture: …and architecture, the art and architecture of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations.

order, any of several styles of classical or Neoclassical architecture that are defined by the particular type of column and entablature they use as a basic unit. A column consists of a shaft together with its base and its capital. The column supports a section of an entablature, which constitutes

Western architecture: Germany: …important of these was the School of Architecture (1831), with walls of red brick ornamented with glazed violet tiles, windows of unpainted terra-cotta, and internal construction of iron beams and brick cap vaults. For Schinkel, who was not a pure Functionalist, the poetry of architecture was as important as it…

Western architecture, history of Western architecture from prehistoric Mediterranean cultures to the 21st century. The history of Western architecture is marked by a series of new solutions to structural problems. During the period from the beginning of civilization through ancient Greek culture,

Sebastiano Serlio: …wrote the influential architecture treatise Tutte l’opere d’architettura, et prospetiva (1537–75; “Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective”).

Aldo Rossi: …publication L’architettura della città (The Architecture of the City), which quickly established him as a leading international theoretician. In the text he argued that, over the course of history, architecture has developed certain continuous forms and ideas, to the point that these are standard types in the collective memory…

giant squid, (genus Architeuthis), any member of a genus of large, elusive cephalopods inhabiting deep regions of temperate to subtropical marine waters. Thought to be the largest or second largest living invertebrate, next to the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), the giant squid has

cephalopod: General features and importance to humans: The giant squids (Architeuthis species) are the largest living invertebrates; A. dux attains a length of more than 20 metres (60 feet), including the extended tentacles. The smallest cephalopod is the squid Idiosepius, rarely an inch in length. The average octopus usually has arms no longer than 30…

architrave, in Classical architecture, the lowest section of the entablature (horizontal member), immediately above the capital of a column. See

Karl Ernst von Baer: …the founding of the journal Archiv für Anthropologie. He was also responsible for the founding of the Russian Geographical Society and the Russian Entomological Society, of which he was the first president.

Wilhelm Roux: In 1894 Roux founded Archiv für Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen, the first journal of experimental embryology.

Rudolf Virchow: Early career: …Benno Reinhardt, a new journal, Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie, und für klinische Medizin (“Archives for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology, and for Clinical Medicine”). After Reinhardt’s death in 1852, Virchow continued as sole editor of the journal, later known as Virchows Archiv, until his own death 50 years later.

Austin: History: …the capital, staged the so-called Archive War, forcibly retaining government records. The government returned to Austin in 1845, the year in which Texas was admitted to the United States. Austin’s pink granite State Capitol (1888), modeled after the U.S. Capitol, succeeded an earlier structure (burned 1881).

archives, repository for an organized body of records produced or received by a public, semipublic, institutional, or business entity in the transaction of its affairs and preserved by it or its successors. The term archives, which also designates the body of records themselves, derives from the

Charles Bordes: …of which were published in Archives de la tradition basque (1889–90). As a composer he achieved particular success with his songs. He also wrote piano music, sacred and secular choral works, a Suite basque for flute and string quartet (1887), many sacred and secular songs, and a symphonic poem for…

Spain: Libraries and archives: …people outside Spain is Sevilla’s Archives of the Indies, which hold an immense quantity of documentation about Spain’s former empire in the Americas.

Graziadio Isaia Ascoli: …1873 he founded the journal Archivio glottologico italiano (“Italian Linguistic Archives”), which he edited until 1907. In the first volume he published an essay on neglected Raeto-Romanic dialects and in the eighth his classification of Italian dialects.

Simancas: This citadel is now the Archivo General del Reino, to which the national archives of Spain were removed by order of Philip II in 1563. It houses important private as well as state documents. Simancas is an agricultural trade centre, and poultry is raised there. Pop. (2007 est.) mun., 4,873.

archivolt, molding running around the face of an arch immediately above the opening. The architectural term is applied especially to medieval and Renaissance buildings, where the archivolts are often decorated with sculpture, as in the archivolts on the west facade of Chartres cathedral

archlute, large 16th-century bass lute provided with additional bass strings, or diapasons, and producing a deeper sound that could be used in orchestral basso continuo parts. The diapasons were tuned according to individual preference, usually in a descending scale from the lowest principal

archon, in ancient Greece, the chief magistrate or magistrates in many city-states. The office became prominent in the Archaic period, when the kings (basileis) were being superseded by aristocrats. At Athens the list of annual archons begins with 682 bc. By the middle of the 7th century bc,

Archon, in gnosticism, any of a number of world-governing powers that were created with the material world by a subordinate deity called the Demiurge (Creator). Although gnosticism did not constitute a single movement, most gnostics were religious dualists who held that matter is inferior and the

archon: …the kingship survived in the basileus, who, as chief religious officer, presided over the Areopagus (aristocratic council) when it sat as a homicide court. Lastly there were six thesmotetai (“determiners of custom”), who dealt with miscellaneous judicial problems.

archon, in ancient Greece, the chief magistrate or magistrates in many city-states. The office became prominent in the Archaic period, when the kings (basileis) were being superseded by aristocrats. At Athens the list of annual archons begins with 682 bc. By the middle of the 7th century bc,

Bartholomew I has served as the 270th ecumenical patriarch and archbishop of Constantinople within the Eastern Orthodox Church since 1991. An influential religious leader of worldwide repute, he is known not only for his stewardship of Eastern Orthodoxy but also for his efforts toward

sheepshead, (Archosargus probatocephalus), popular edible sport fish in the family Sparidae (order Perciformes), common in Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico waters of the southern North American coast. Although once prevalent in the New England to Chesapeake Bay area, the species has inexplicably become

archosaur, (subclass Archosauria), any of various reptiles, including all crocodiles and birds and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor. Archosaurs (“ruling reptiles”) are members of a subclass that also includes the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and several groups of

archosaur, (subclass Archosauria), any of various reptiles, including all crocodiles and birds and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor. Archosaurs (“ruling reptiles”) are members of a subclass that also includes the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs (flying reptiles), and several groups of

Archosaurus, early genus of reptiles found as fossils in Middle and Late Permian deposits of Europe (265 million to 251 million years ago). Archosaurus typifies the progressive changes occurring in reptilian structure that eventually led to their dominance as the major vertebrates. A clear trend

coleopteran: Annotated classification: Suborder Archostemata Hind coxae rarely fused to metasternum; distinct notopleural suture between notum and pleural sclerites. Family Crowsoniellidae 1 species, Crowsoniella relicta. Family Cupesidae (Cupedidae; reticulated beetles)

Don Marquis: Archy and Mehitabel first appeared in “The Sun Dial.” Archy’s poetic reflections on the world and the racy misadventures of Mehitabel were related in first person and lowercase by Archy, who supposedly could not press down the typewriter’s shift key.

Archy and Mehitabel, collection of humorous stories by Don Marquis, originally published from 1916 in Marquis’s newspaper columns “The Sun Dial” in the New York Evening Sun and “The Lantern” in the New York Herald Tribune and published in book form in 1927. The stories centre on Archy, a

Archytas of Tarentum was a Greek scientist, philosopher, and major Pythagorean mathematician. Plato, a close friend, made use of his work in mathematics, and there is evidence that Euclid borrowed from him for the treatment of number theory in Book VIII of his Elements. Archytas was also an

ark shell, any of the species of predominantly marine bivalve mollusks of the family Arcidae. Such clams are characterized by boat-shaped shells with long, straight hinge lines bearing many small, interlocking teeth. The shells are usually coated with a thick, sometimes hairy periostracum (outer

Asilah, city on the Atlantic coast of northwestern Morocco, south of Tangier. While some attribute its founding to the Phoenicians, others believe its origins date back to the Roman period; perhaps each account refers to a slightly different location on this busy coastal strip not far from Europe.

Giuseppe Arcimboldo was an Italian Mannerist painter whose grotesque compositions of fruits, vegetables, animals, books, and other objects were arranged to resemble human portraits. In the 20th century these double images were greatly admired by Salvador Dali and other Surrealist painters.

Giuseppe Arcimboldo was an Italian Mannerist painter whose grotesque compositions of fruits, vegetables, animals, books, and other objects were arranged to resemble human portraits. In the 20th century these double images were greatly admired by Salvador Dali and other Surrealist painters.

Latin American architecture: Eighteenth-century architecture in Mexico: …in the 16th century by Claudio de Arciniega, is Classical in its layout, with extraordinary fragments of an exuberant Baroque decoration applied on the surface. The cathedral’s Altar of the Kings (1718–37), by Jerónimo de Balbás, began a formal type that would be applied until the end of the 18th…

Germán Arciniegas was a Colombian historian, essayist, diplomat, and statesman whose long career in journalism and public service strongly influenced the cultural development of his country in the 20th century. His contributions abroad as an educator and diplomat played an important role in

bhūmi: …with the noble doctrine), (4) arciṣmatī (“brilliant,” the rays of his virtue consuming evil passions and ignorance), (5) sudurjayā (“hard to conquer”), (6) abhimukhī (“turning toward” both transmigration and nirvana), (7) dūraṅgamā (“far-going”), (8) acalā (“immovable”), (9) sādhumatī (“good-minded”), and

The Two Noble Kinsmen: Palamon and Arcite, two noble nephews of Creon, are captured. As they languish in prison, their protestations of eternal friendship stop the instant they glimpse Emilia through a window, and they quarrel over her. Arcite is unexpectedly released and banished, but he returns in disguise; Palamon escapes…

Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: Early life: …until the frescoes of the Palazzo Arcivescovile of Udine, executed sometime after 1726, that Tiepolo, then about 30, reached full maturity of expression. In these frescoes, he gave up the chiaroscuro of his early works and greatly brightened his colour, while preserving his form intact. The decoration was commissioned by…

bow, in music, curved stick with tightly held fibres that produces sound by friction when drawn across the strings of a chordophone, such as a rebab, violin, or erhu. The most common material is rosined horsehair; some African bows used strips cut from rubber inner tubes, and the Korean ajaeng, a

Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO), former American petroleum corporation that was headquartered in Los Angeles and was bought in 2000 by the giant BP Amoco (later BP PLC). The Atlantic Richfield Company was created in 1966 by the merger of Richfield Oil Corporation and Atlantic Refining Company.

bivalve: Annotated classification: Order Arcoida Shell solid, elongate or circular-oval, often heavily ribbed; fibrous periostracum with simple crossed-lamellar outer layer and inner complex crossed-lamellar layer, thereby differing from all other pteriomorphs; dimyarian; hinge with vertical denticulations; ctenidia filibranch; mantle margin with uniquely divided outer fold; foot often byssate; marine;…

Paolo Soleri: Soleri coined the term arcology (from architecture and ecology) to describe his utopian constructions, which he delineated in drawings of great beauty and imagination. The exhibition of his drawings and models in major American cities in 1970 brought him widespread public notice. Soleri’s Arcology: The City in the Image…

Arcos de la Frontera, city, Cádiz provincia (province), in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Andalusia, southern Spain. It is located on a high rock bounded on three sides by the Guadalete River. Rich in Moorish architecture, the city also contains the Gothic churches of Santa María

Arizona: Cultural life: …the futuristic, embryonic city of Arcosanti designed by Paolo Soleri are found in Arizona. Among the many structures in the Spanish style, the Heard Museum is outstanding, and the Nogales Public Library synthesizes the Spanish Southwestern and contemporary styles. Probably the most-photographed building in all of Arizona is the San…

Arcot, town, northeastern Tamil Nadu state, southeastern India, on the Palar River. It is located at the point where the Palar River valley meets the Coromandel Coast region and commands the inland route from Chennai (Madras) to Bengaluru (Bangalore), between the Mysore Ghat and the Javadi Hills. A

Charlotte Perriand: Collaborations with Jean Prouvé, visits to Japan, and Les Arcs: …largest project—the ski resort of Les Arcs in Savoy (1967–85)—united her work and the landscape she remembered so fondly from her youth. Those designs demonstrate the caliber, value, and longevity of Perriand’s rich contribution to the profession.

Arctic, northernmost region of Earth, centred on the North Pole and characterized by distinctively polar conditions of climate, plant and animal life, and other physical features. The term is derived from the Greek arktos (“bear”), referring to the northern constellation of the Bear. It has

air mass: Maritime Polar (mP) air masses develop over the polar areas of both the Northern and the Southern hemispheres. They generally contain considerably more moisture than the cP air masses. As they move inland in middle and high latitudes, heavy precipitation may occur when the air is forced…

Arctic Archipelago, Group of Canadian islands, Arctic Ocean. They lie north of the Canadian mainland and have an area of about 550,000 sq mi (1,424,500 sq km). The southeastern islands are an extension of the Canadian Shield; the balance consists of the Arctic lowlands to the south and the

Atlantic Ocean: Extent: This is because the Arctic basin—which stretches from the Bering Strait across the North Pole to Spitsbergen and Greenland—resembles a semienclosed basin (i.e., it is nearly surrounded by land, receives proportionately large volumes of river discharge and sediments, has an extensive continental margin, and is relatively shallow). In this…

Admiralty Inlet: Arctic Bay (Ikpiarjuk; pop. [2006] 690; [2011] 823), a mineral exploration and hunting base, is on its northeastern shore.

char: The Arctic char (S. alpinus), of North America and Europe, inhabits the Arctic and adjacent oceans and enters rivers and lakes to breed. Some populations are restricted to freshwater lakes, which they colonized in glacial times. Like the other chars, the Arctic char is a good…

Arctic Circle, parallel, or line of latitude around Earth, at approximately 66°30′ N. Because of Earth’s inclination of about 23 1 2 ° to the vertical, it marks the southern limit of the area within which, for one day or more each year, the sun does not set (about June 21) or rise (about December

Pacific Ocean: Deepwater circulation: A corresponding Arctic Convergence is prominent in the northeastern Pacific.

Arctic Council, intergovernmental body that promotes research and facilitates cooperation among Arctic countries on issues related to the environmental protection and sustainable development of the Arctic region. The council was created in Ottawa in 1996 by the Declaration on the Establishment of

Native American: The Arctic: This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes the northernmost parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. The topography is relatively flat, and the climate is characterized by very cold temperatures for most of the year. The region’s extreme northerly location alters…

Alec Baldwin: 30 Rock, SNL, and later films: …Baby: Family Business (2021); and Arctic Dogs (2019). In 2020 he reprised the role of Donaghy for 30 Rock: A One-Time Special, which featured promotions for NBCUniversal’s 2020–21 TV lineup. That year Baldwin also appeared in Chick Fight, about a women’s underground fight club.

Alaskan mountains: …the Brooks Range and the Arctic foothills, which extend the Rocky Mountains in an east-west arc from the border with Canada across northern Alaska. Central Alaska is characterized by highlands and basins drained by the great Yukon and Kuskokwim river systems. That area has been likened by some to a…

Arctic fox, (Vulpes lagopus), northern fox of the family Canidae, found throughout the Arctic region, usually on tundra or mountains near the sea. Fully grown adults reach about 50–60 cm (20–24 inches) in length, exclusive of the 30-cm (12-inch) tail, and a weight of about 3–8 kg (6.6–17 pounds).

dormancy: Causes of dormancy: For example, the Arctic ground squirrel (whose winter period of dormancy is referred to as hibernation), when taken into the laboratory, supplied with adequate amounts of food and water, and exposed to constant temperature and light, exhibits periodic torpor (extreme sluggishness)—an innate behavioral pattern that operates independently of…

Arctic Archipelago, Group of Canadian islands, Arctic Ocean. They lie north of the Canadian mainland and have an area of about 550,000 sq mi (1,424,500 sq km). The southeastern islands are an extension of the Canadian Shield; the balance consists of the Arctic lowlands to the south and the

loon: …but some species, especially the Arctic loon, or black-throated diver (G. arctica), winter or migrate in flocks. The voice is distinctive, including guttural sounds and the mournful, eerie wailing cries that in North America may have given rise to the common name loon. (Some sources suggest it arises from the…

rock: Rock in the early 21st century: …for new bands such as Arctic Monkeys and Kings of Leon, social networking Web sites were crucial to the way in which audiences could be built from the bottom up, initial enthusiasm spreading by word of mouth rather than by top-down media campaigns. The “local” buzz that has always driven…

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, vast natural area occupying the northeastern corner of the U.S. state of Alaska. It was established in 1960 as Arctic National Wildlife Range with an area of approximately 13,900 square miles (36,000 square km) and was expanded and renamed Arctic National Wildlife

Arctic Ocean, smallest of the world’s oceans, centring approximately on the North Pole. The Arctic Ocean and its marginal seas—the Chukchi, East Siberian, Laptev, Kara, Barents, White, Greenland, and Beaufort and, according to some oceanographers, also the Bering and Norwegian—are the least-known

sea ice: Pack ice drift and thickness: …centre is known as the Arctic Oscillation.

Native American: Subarctic and Arctic peoples: The European exploration of the Subarctic was for many decades limited to the coasts of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, an inland sea connected to the Atlantic and the Arctic oceans. The initial European exploration of the bay occurred in 1610. It was…

Pacific Ocean: Deepwater circulation: A corresponding Arctic Convergence is prominent in the northeastern Pacific.

polar ecosystem: Biota of the Arctic: …conditions include species of the Arctic poppy (Papaver), some rushes (Juncus), small saxifrages (Saxifraga), and a few other rosette-forming herbaceous species. The Arctic poppy and a few of the other flowering herbs adapted to the High Arctic have flowers that are solartropic (turning in response to the Sun). Their parabolic-shaped…

Mackenzie River: The lower course: Where the Arctic Red River enters from the south, the Mackenzie again flows between steep rock walls, which rise up to 200 feet (60 metres) directly from the water.

fog: …pack ice; hence, the term Arctic sea smoke.

Arctic: History of settlement: …bce, when people of the Arctic Small Tool tradition began to replace any Northern Archaic people who were exploiting the largely treeless lands immediately inland from the coasts. Predominantly terrestrial in subsistence orientation—hunting especially caribou and musk ox and taking river and lake fish—the people of the Arctic Small Tool…

bottlenose whale: Bottlenose oil is very similar to spermaceti and was known as “Arctic sperm oil.” It sold for a lower price and gummed more easily than sperm oil. The bottlenose whale fishery peaked in the 1890s and again in the 1960s.

Arctic tern, (Sterna paradisaea), tern species that makes the longest annual migration of any bird. It breeds in the southerly reaches of the Arctic and winters in the Antarctic, making its migration a round-trip of 60,000 to 82,000 km (roughly 37,000 to 51,000 miles). Its appearance—white with a