rehabilitation robot: The first type is an assistive robot that substitutes for lost limb movements. An example is the Manus ARM (assistive robotic manipulator), which is a wheelchair-mounted robotic arm that is controlled using a chin switch or other input device. That process is called telemanipulation and is similar to an astronaut’s…

assistive technology, any device that is used to support the health and activity of a disabled person. The U.S. Assistive Technology Act of 2004 defined assistive technology device as: Assistive technologies enhance the ability of a disabled person to participate in major life activities and to

assistive technology: Assistive Technology Act of 2004 defined assistive technology device as:

assize, in law, a session, or sitting, of a court of justice. It originally signified the method of trial by jury. During the Middle Ages the term was applied to certain court sessions held in the counties of England; it was also applied in France to special sessions of the Parlement of Paris (the

measurement system: The English system: …a royal ordinance entitled “Assize of Weights and Measures” defined a broad list of units and standards so successfully that it remained in force for several centuries thereafter. A standard yard, “the Iron Yard of our Lord the King,” was prescribed for the realm, divided into the traditional 3…

manorialism: Western Europe: …rent that was known as rent of assize and, second, dues under various names, partly in lieu of services commuted into money payments and partly for the privileges and profits enjoyed by him on the waste of the manor. In labour he paid more heavily. Week by week he was…

assize: The term also designated certain writs operable in such courts. In modern times courts of assize are criminal courts that deal with the most serious crimes.

Crusades: Legal practices: …were governed according to the Assizes of the Court of the Bourgeois. Each national group retained its institutions. The Syrians, for example, maintained a court overseen by the rais (raʾīs), a chieftain of importance under the Frankish regime. An important element in the kingdom’s army, the corps of Turcopoles, made…

Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), leading Indian trade association. It was established as the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India and Ceylon in 1920 by a group of chambers of commerce led by the Calcutta Traders Association. In the early 21st

degree: …United States is that of associate, which is awarded by junior or community colleges after a two-year course of study; it has a relatively low status.

Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), leading Indian trade association. It was established as the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India and Ceylon in 1920 by a group of chambers of commerce led by the Calcutta Traders Association. In the early 21st

Zilpha Drew Smith: …registrar of the newly organized Associated Charities of Boston, a consolidation of the city’s principal social welfare agencies. It was her task to implement and supervise the confidential investigation and registration of all charity cases, to ensure the cooperation of agencies in handling the cases, and to organize a system…

natural gas: …natural gas is known as associated gas; it is often considered to be the gaseous phase of the crude oil and usually contains some light liquids such as propane and butane. For this reason, associated gas is sometimes called “wet gas.” There are also reservoirs that contain gas and no…

Fred Lazarus, Jr.: The group formed the Associated Merchandising Corp.

Associated Press (AP), cooperative 24-hour news agency (wire service), the oldest and largest of those in the United States and long the largest and one of the preeminent news agencies in the world. Headquarters are in New York, N.Y. Its beginnings can be traced to 1846, when four New York City

subatomic particle: Strangeness: … in 1952, is known as associated production.

Ealing Studios, English motion-picture studio, internationally remembered for a series of witty comedies that reflected the social conditions of post-World War II Britain. Founded in 1929 by two of England’s best known producers, Basil Dean and Reginald Baker, with the financial support of the

Lew Grade, Baron Grade of Elstree: …British commercial television; his company, Associated Television (ATV), went on to produce several popular action-adventure series, including Robin Hood, The Saint, The Avengers, The Prisoner, Father Brown, and Danger Man (U.S. title Secret Agent). Two of the best-known series he produced were the long-running soap opera Crossroads and The Muppet…

Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI), group of U.S. universities that administers the operation of two federally funded research facilities, one in nuclear physics and the other in radio astronomy. The member institutions are Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Massachusetts Institute of

chemical association, the aggregation of atoms or molecules into larger units held together by forces weaker than chemical bonds that bind atoms in molecules. The term is usually restricted to the formation of aggregates of like molecules or atoms. Polymerization also denotes the formation of

association, general psychological principle linked with the phenomena of recollection or memory. The principle originally stated that the act of remembering or recalling any past experience would also bring to the fore other events or experiences that had become related, in one or more specific

conifer: Roots: …boost in their work by associating with specialized fungi whose structural filaments (hyphae) intermingle with them to form mycorrhizae. There are two distinct types of mycorrhizal associations among the conifers. The majority of species have vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae, called endomycorrhizae because the fungal hyphae actually penetrate the cells of the roots.…

human nervous system: General organization of perception: …of the cortex, traditionally called association areas. It is thought that these areas integrate sensory and motor information and that this integration allows objects to be recognized and located in space. With these regions acting upon all their inputs, the brain is carrying out those aspects of neural activity that…

broadcasting: International organizations: …based in London, and the Association Catholique Internationale pour la Radio, la Télévision, et l’Audiovisuel, based in Brussels. Radio Free Europe, based in Munich and financed by U.S. government funds, was established to broadcast pro-Western propaganda to eastern Europe.

chemical association: …is commonly known as an association complex. Because of the weakness of the forces holding the small units together, an equilibrium is often observed between an association complex and the corresponding simple molecules. The equilibrium mixture behaves chemically much as would the small molecules by themselves, because the removal of…

association croquet, lawn game in which players use wooden mallets to hit balls through a series of wire hoops, or wickets, with a central peg as the ultimate goal. It is played on an organized basis in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. (For the origins of the game and a

Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama, a body of Muslim religious scholars (ʿulamāʾ) who, under French rule, advocated the restoration of an Algerian nation rooted in Islamic and Arabic traditions. The association, founded in 1931 and formally organized on May 5, 1935, by Sheikh ʿAbd al-Hamid ben

football, game in which two teams of 11 players, using any part of their bodies except their hands and arms, try to maneuver the ball into the opposing team’s goal. Only the goalkeeper is permitted to handle the ball and may do so only within the penalty area surrounding the goal. The team that

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), international organization for computer science and information technology professionals and, since 1960, institutions associated with the field. Since 1966 ACM has annually presented one or more individuals with the A.M. Turing Award, the most prestigious

Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM), cooperative organization of musicians, including several major figures of free jazz. The musical innovations of the AACM members became important influences on the idiom’s development. Of the approximately three dozen Chicago musicians

Karen Horney: …organize a new group, the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis, and its affiliated teaching centre, the American Institute for Psychoanalysis. Horney founded the association’s American Journal of Psychoanalysis and served as its editor until her death in 1952. She also continued to write, further expounding her views that neuroses…

Association Internationale Africaine, a society of explorers, geographers, and philanthropists formed in September 1876 at the instigation of Leopold II, king of the Belgians, to “civilize” Central Africa. At its formation it was intended that the association, with headquarters in Brussels, should

boxing: Amateur boxing: …matches are controlled by the Association Internationale de Boxe Amateur (AIBA), formed in 1946.

Association Internationale du Congo, association under whose auspices the Congo region (coextensive with present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) was explored and brought under the ownership of the Belgian king Leopold II and a group of European investors. The Committee for Studies of the

International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), confederation primarily comprising national sports medicine associations from across the globe. The organization also includes continental associations, regional associations, and various individual members. It is the oldest and largest such

associative learning, in animal behaviour, any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. In its broadest sense, the term has been used to describe virtually all learning except simple habituation (q.v.). In a more restricted sense, it has been limited

insect: Nervous system: …nerve cells, motor neurons and association neurons. Motor neurons have main processes, or axons, that extend from the ganglia to contractile muscles, and minor processes, or dendrites, that connect with the neuropile. Association neurons, usually smaller than motor neurons, are linked with other parts of the nervous system by way…

thalamus: Thalamic nuclei: …thalamus include the relay nuclei, association nuclei, midline/intralaminar nuclei, and the reticular nucleus. With the exception of the reticular nucleus, these nuclear groups are divided regionally (i.e., anterior, medial, and lateral) by sheets of myelinated neural fibres known as the internal medullary lamina. The reticular nucleus is separated from the…

Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama, a body of Muslim religious scholars (ʿulamāʾ) who, under French rule, advocated the restoration of an Algerian nation rooted in Islamic and Arabic traditions. The association, founded in 1931 and formally organized on May 5, 1935, by Sheikh ʿAbd al-Hamid ben

Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama, a body of Muslim religious scholars (ʿulamāʾ) who, under French rule, advocated the restoration of an Algerian nation rooted in Islamic and Arabic traditions. The association, founded in 1931 and formally organized on May 5, 1935, by Sheikh ʿAbd al-Hamid ben

Association of Caribbean States (ACS), trading bloc composed of 25 countries of the Caribbean basin. Responding to a proposal by then U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), existing Caribbean-area trading blocs joined forces in 1995 to strengthen their economic

Hope Hostel, a four-story lodging facility located in Kigali, Rwanda. It opened in October 2014 to house college students who had been orphaned after their parents were killed during the Rwandan genocide of 1994; it provided a place for them to reside when school was not in session. In 2022 the

Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), consortium of U.S. universities that directs the operations of federally funded astronomical research centres. AURA was incorporated in 1957 with seven member institutions; more than 60 years later, 47 U.S. universities and three foreign

combinatorics: PBIB (partially balanced incomplete block) designs: …be an m-class partially balanced association scheme:

association test, test used in psychology to study the organization of mental life, with special reference to the cognitive connections that underlie perception and meaning, memory, language, reasoning, and motivation. In the free-association test, the subject is told to state the first word that

Albert Mansbridge: …the Workers’ Educational Association (WEA; originally called An Association to Promote the Higher Education of Working Men). The WEA was quickly recognized by most British universities, and in 1905 Mansbridge abandoned clerical work to become its full-time general secretary.

chemical association, the aggregation of atoms or molecules into larger units held together by forces weaker than chemical bonds that bind atoms in molecules. The term is usually restricted to the formation of aggregates of like molecules or atoms. Polymerization also denotes the formation of

stellar association, a very large, loose grouping of stars that are of similar spectral type and relatively recent origin. Stellar associations are thought to be the birthplaces of most stars. The stars in stellar associations are grouped together much more loosely than they are in star clusters of

communitarianism: The common good versus individual rights: …liberating but impersonal societies (Gesellschaft). They warned of the dangers of anomie (normlessness) and alienation in modern societies composed of atomized individuals who had gained their liberty but lost their social moorings. Essentially the theses of Tönnies and Durkheim were supported with contemporary social-scientific data in Bowling Alone: The…

association: As a result, associationism became a theoretical view embracing the whole of psychology.

anticlericalism: France: The Law of Associations (1901) suppressed nearly all of the religious orders in France and confiscated their property, and the separation law (1905) sundered church and state.

associative law, in mathematics, either of two laws relating to number operations of addition and multiplication, stated symbolically: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c, and a(bc) = (ab)c; that is, the terms or factors may be associated in any way desired. While associativity holds for ordinary arithmetic

associative learning, in animal behaviour, any learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a particular stimulus. In its broadest sense, the term has been used to describe virtually all learning except simple habituation (q.v.). In a more restricted sense, it has been limited

coordination compound: Substitution: The associative mechanism for substitution reactions, on the other hand, involves association of an extra ligand with the complex to give an intermediate of higher coordination number; one of the original ligands is then lost to restore the initial coordination number. Substitution reactions of square planar…

surface coating: Rheological-control additives: … polyacrylic acid), and the so-called associative thickeners are employed in aqueous systems. Polymers used as thickeners function by dissolving in and raising the viscosity of the solvent or carrier liquid portion of the coating. Pigmentary materials that are used specifically to raise viscosity act by forming interacting, connected networks or…

agnosia: Types of agnosia: Associative visual agnosias are characterized by the inability to ascribe meaning to the objects one sees. Affected individuals cannot distinguish between objects that are real and those that are not. For example, when presented with drawings of a real animal, such as a dog, and…

AC Milan, Italian professional football (soccer) club based in Milan. AC Milan is nicknamed the Rossoneri (“Red and Blacks”) because of the team’s distinctive red-and-black striped jerseys. The winner of 18 Serie A (Italy’s top football division) league championships, the club is also one of the

Young Italy: …replaced Young Italy with the Italian National Committee (Associazione Nazionale Italiana). After 1850, with Piedmont leading the struggle for unification, Mazzini’s influence declined.

AS Roma, Italian professional football (soccer) team based in Rome. AS Roma has been an almost constant presence in Italy’s top league, Serie A, throughout its history. It is one of the best-supported teams in the country. AS Roma was founded in 1927 and joined Serie A upon the league’s formation

Émile Zola: Les Rougon-Macquart: The Drunkard), which is among the most successful and enduringly popular of Zola’s novels, shows the effects of alcoholism in a working-class neighbourhood by focusing on the rise and decline of a laundress, Gervaise Macquart. Zola’s use of slang, not only by the characters but…

assonance, in prosody, repetition of stressed vowel sounds within words with different end consonants, as in the phrase “quite like.” It is unlike rhyme, in which initial consonants differ but both vowel and end-consonant sounds are identical, as in the phrase “quite right.” Many common phrases,

assortative mating, in human genetics, a form of nonrandom mating in which pair bonds are established on the basis of phenotype (observable characteristics). For example, a person may choose a mate according to religious, cultural, or ethnic preferences, professional interests, or physical traits.

Assus, ancient Greek city of the Troad, located on the coast of what is now northwestern Turkey, with the island of Lesbos lying about 7 miles (11 km) offshore to the south. Founded by Aeolic colonists from Methymna in Lesbos in the 1st millennium bc, the city was constructed on the terraced

Aswān, city, capital of Aswān muḥāfaẓah (governorate), Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile River just below the First Cataract. It faces the island of Elephantine (modern Jazīrat Aswān), on which stand the ruins of the ancient city of Yeb. Aswān was the southern frontier of pharaonic Egypt. Its

Aswān, muḥāfaẓah (governorate), Upper Egypt, embracing the Nile River floodplain and immediately adjacent territories. Long and narrow in shape, it is the most southerly Egyptian governorate along the Nile; its short southern boundary forms part of the international frontier with Sudan. The

Comoros: History of Comoros: Azali Assoumani, who took control of the government. The new government was not recognized by the international community, but in July Assoumani negotiated an accord with the secessionists on the island of Anjouan. The secessionists signed an agreement that established a presidential term that would…

Aswān, city, capital of Aswān muḥāfaẓah (governorate), Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile River just below the First Cataract. It faces the island of Elephantine (modern Jazīrat Aswān), on which stand the ruins of the ancient city of Yeb. Aswān was the southern frontier of pharaonic Egypt. Its

Aswān, muḥāfaẓah (governorate), Upper Egypt, embracing the Nile River floodplain and immediately adjacent territories. Long and narrow in shape, it is the most southerly Egyptian governorate along the Nile; its short southern boundary forms part of the international frontier with Sudan. The

insurance: Liability law: These are assumed risk, contributory negligence, and the fellow servant doctrine. Under the assumed risk rule, the defendant may argue that the plaintiff has assumed the risk of loss in entering into a given venture and understands the risks. Employers formerly used the assumed risk doctrine in…

assumpsit, (Latin: “he has undertaken”), in common law, an action to recover damages for breach of contract. Originating in the 14th century as a form of recovery for the negligent performance of an undertaking, this action gradually came to cover the many kinds of agreement called for by an

Assumption, in Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic theology, the notion or (in Roman Catholicism) the doctrine that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was taken (assumed) into heaven, body and soul, following the end of her life on Earth. There is no mention of the Assumption in the New Testament, although

Francia: …such works as his “Assumption” (1504) with its gentle landscape filled with picturesque rock formations and delicate trees in the Umbrian manner and elongated figures that recall those of Costa. Although a large number of repetitious Madonnas were produced in his workshop—e.g., “The Madonna and Child and Two Angels”…

Giovanni di Paolo: …period, of which the coarse Assumption polyptych of 1475 from Staggia constitutes the last important work.

Western architecture: Kievan Rus and Russia: …the erection of the imposing Assumption Belfry, begun in 1532 and built as a complement to the adjacent Ivan the Great Bell Tower. The colossal white stone “column of fame,” with its golden cupola gleaming above the Kremlin hill, was the definite expression of an era, reflecting the tastes and…

Gerhart Hauptmann: …tenets in Hanneles Himmelfahrt (1894; The Assumption of Hannele), a poetic evocation of the dreams an abused workhouse girl has shortly before she dies. Der Biberpelz (1893; The Beaver Coat) is a successful comedy, written in a Berlin dialect, that centres on a cunning female thief and her successful confrontation…

insurance: Liability law: These are assumed risk, contributory negligence, and the fellow servant doctrine. Under the assumed risk rule, the defendant may argue that the plaintiff has assumed the risk of loss in entering into a given venture and understands the risks. Employers formerly used the assumed risk doctrine in…

insurance: Liability law: These are assumed risk, contributory negligence, and the fellow servant doctrine. Under the assumed risk rule, the defendant may argue that the plaintiff has assumed the risk of loss in entering into a given venture and understands the risks. Employers formerly used the assumed risk doctrine in…

Benjamin Latrobe: …most famous work is the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Baltimore (begun 1805), a severe, beautifully proportioned structure slightly marred by the onion-shaped domes added, after Latrobe’s death, to the towers above the portico. Also in Baltimore is his Exchange (1820).

Assumption of the Virgin, oil painting on panel created in 1516–18 by Titian as the altarpiece for the church of Santa Maria dei Frari in Venice, Italy, where it remains. It is among the largest and most influential altarpieces in European art and is one of the artist’s most revolutionary

Matthias Grünewald: …to the altarpiece of the Assumption of the Virgin recently completed by the painter Albrecht Dürer. These wings depicting four saints are painted in grisaille (shades of gray) and already show the artist at the height of his powers. Like Grünewald’s drawings, which are done primarily in black chalk with…

Correggio: Mature works: fresco of the Assumption of the Virgin (completed c. 1530) in the dome of the nearby cathedral of Parma marks the culmination of Correggio’s career as a mural painter. This fresco (a painting in plaster with water-soluble pigments) anticipates the Baroque style of dramatically illusionistic ceiling painting. The…

Sergiyev Posad: …with its later tower; the Cathedral of the Assumption (1559–85), containing frescoes of 1684; the late 17th-century refectory; and the 18th-century bell tower. There is a museum of toys in the monastery. Modern Sergiyev Posad has engineering and diverse light industries. The city still holds an annual international fair. Pop.…

Western architecture: Kievan Rus and Russia: …monuments of Vladimir-Suzdal are the church of the Assumption (1158–89), which was to serve as a model for its namesake in the Moscow Kremlin; the church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the Nerl, one of the loveliest creations of medieval Russia (1165); and the church of St. Dmitri…

Moscow: The Kremlin of Moscow: The Cathedral of the Assumption is the oldest, built of white stone in 1475–79 in the Italianate-Byzantine style. Its pure, simple, and beautifully proportioned lines and elegant arches are crowned by five golden domes. The Orthodox metropolitans and patriarchs of the 14th to 18th centuries are…

Altamura: The Romanesque-style Cathedral of the Assumption, begun in 1232 by Frederick, has been restored several times. The richly carved portal and central rose window in its facade are notable. The Pulo di Altamura, about 4 miles (6 km) away, is a limestone abyss, 1,640 feet (500 m)…

Emmanuel d’ Alzon: …(1845) the congregation of the Augustinians of the Assumption, dedicated to education and to missionary work; it received papal approval in 1864. To help in this work he also founded a congregation of women, the Oblates of the Assumption. He was sent in 1863 to establish a mission in Constantinople…

Assumption of the Virgin, oil painting on panel created in 1516–18 by Titian as the altarpiece for the church of Santa Maria dei Frari in Venice, Italy, where it remains. It is among the largest and most influential altarpieces in European art and is one of the artist’s most revolutionary

Ashur, ancient religious capital of Assyria, located on the west bank of the Tigris River in northern Iraq. The first scientific excavations there were conducted by a German expedition (1903–13) led by Walter Andrae. Ashur was a name applied to the city, to the country, and to the principal god of

Ashurnasirpal I was the king of Assyria 1050–32 bc, when it was at a low ebb in power and prosperity caused by widespread famine and the pressure of western desert nomads, against whom Ashurnasirpal warred constantly. His father, Shamshi-Adad IV, a son of Tiglath-pileser I, was placed on the throne

Ashurnasirpal II was the king of Assyria from 883–859 bce, whose major accomplishment was the consolidation of the conquests of his father, Tukulti-Ninurta II, leading to the establishment of the New Assyrian empire. Although, by his own testimony, he was a brilliant general and administrator, he

Ashurbanipal was the last of the great kings of Assyria (reigned 668 to 627 bce), who assembled in Nineveh the first systematically organized library in Mesopotamia and the ancient Middle East. The life of this vigorous ruler of an empire ranging initially from the Persian Gulf to Cilicia, Syria,

special delivery: …a service known as “assured mail delivery,” which guarantees overnight delivery of certain mail to any part of the country. In Great Britain rapid conveyance of urgent letters is provided by the so-called night mail system, in which mail is sorted for immediate delivery in traveling post offices (TPOs)…

Assus, ancient Greek city of the Troad, located on the coast of what is now northwestern Turkey, with the island of Lesbos lying about 7 miles (11 km) offshore to the south. Founded by Aeolic colonists from Methymna in Lesbos in the 1st millennium bc, the city was constructed on the terraced

Assyria, kingdom of northern Mesopotamia that became the center of one of the great empires of the ancient Middle East. It was located in what is now northern Iraq and southeastern Turkey. A brief treatment of Assyria follows. For full treatment, see Mesopotamia, history of: The Rise of Assyria.

Assyrian, member of an ethnic group primarily in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey that traces its roots to the Assyrian Empire, which ruled parts of the ancient Middle East variously from the 14th century bce to the 7th century bce. Religious affiliations are central to Assyrians’ modern

eclipse: Assyrian: The Assyrian Chronicle, a cuneiform tablet that preserves the names of the annual magistrates who gave their names to the years (similar to the later Athenian archons or Roman consuls), records under the year that corresponds to 763–762 bce: “Revolt in the citadel; in [the month]…

Nestorianism, Christian sect that originated in Asia Minor and Syria stressing the independence of the divine and human natures of Christ and, in effect, suggesting that they are two persons loosely united. The schismatic sect formed following the condemnation of Nestorius and his teachings by the

Akkadian language: …Akkadian language divided into the Assyrian dialect, spoken in northern Mesopotamia, and the Babylonian dialect, spoken in southern Mesopotamia. At first the Assyrian dialect was used more extensively, but Babylonian largely supplanted it and became the lingua franca of the Middle East by the 9th century bce. During the 7th…

Akkadian language: …University of Chicago (or the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, as it is better known) reached 26 volumes (consisting of 21 numbered volumes, some of which were published in separate parts); the final volume was released in 2011, and the dictionary as a whole was made available online . The Chicago Assyrian…

Assyrian: History from the 19th century: …World War I and the Assyrian Genocide, or Sayfo (Aramaic: “sword”), shattered the cultural coherence and political unity that the community had strived to achieve in the decades before the war. Estimates vary, but upwards of 250,000 Assyrians were killed during World War I. This number does not consider the…