The Commercial Appeal, morning daily newspaper published in Memphis, Tenn., and one of the leading daily papers of the Mid-South in the United States. Founded in 1840 by Henry van Pelt as a two-page sheet called The Western World and the Memphis Banner of the Constitution, it was shortly renamed

arbitration: Commercial arbitration: Commercial arbitration is a means of settling disputes by referring them to a neutral person, an arbitrator, selected by the parties for a decision based on the evidence and arguments presented to the arbitration tribunal. The parties agree in advance that the decision…

chamber of commerce, any of various voluntary organizations of business firms, public officials, professional people, and public-spirited citizens. They are primarily interested in publicizing, promoting, and developing commercial and industrial opportunities in their areas; they also seek to

commercial bank, bank with the power to make loans that, at least in part, eventually become new demand deposits. Because a commercial bank is required to hold only a fraction of its deposits as reserves, it can use some of the money on deposit to extend loans. When a borrower receives a loan, his

economic system: From mercantilism to commercial capitalism: …18th-century stage is called “commercial capitalism,” although it should be noted that the word capitalism itself does not actually appear in the pages of Smith’s book.

white-collar crime, crime committed by persons who, often by virtue of their occupations, exploit social, economic, or technological power for personal or corporate gain. The term, coined in 1939 by the American criminologist Edwin Sutherland, drew attention to the typical attire of the

business organization, an entity formed for the purpose of carrying on commercial enterprise. Such an organization is predicated on systems of law governing contract and exchange, property rights, and incorporation. Business enterprises customarily take one of three forms: individual

France: The stock exchange: …were historically centred on the Bourse de Paris (Paris Stock Exchange), a national system that in the late 20th century incorporated much smaller exchanges at Lyon, Bordeaux, Lille, Marseille, Nancy, and Nantes. Share dealings and stock market activity increased greatly beginning in the early 1980s, corresponding with a period of…

commercial fishing, the taking of fish and other seafood and resources from oceans, rivers, and lakes for the purpose of marketing them. In the early 21st century about 250 million people were directly employed by the commercial fishing industry, and an estimated one billion people depended on fish

Casa de Contratación, central trading house and procurement agency for Spain’s New World empire from the 16th to the 18th century. Organized in 1503 by Queen Isabella in Sevilla (Seville), it was initially headed by Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, her chaplain and former overseer of the Columbus

Internet: Foundation of the Internet: …joined by others, and the Commercial Internet Exchange (CIX) was formed to allow transit traffic between commercial networks that otherwise would not have been allowed on the NSFNET backbone. In 1995, after extensive review of the situation, NSF decided that support of the NSFNET infrastructure was no longer required, since…

business law, the body of rules, whether by convention, agreement, or national or international legislation, governing the dealings between persons in commercial matters. Business law falls into two distinctive areas: (1) the regulation of commercial entities by the laws of company, partnership,

comparative law: 19th-century beginnings: …Levi published a work entitled Commercial Law, Its Principles and Administration; The Mercantile Law of Great Britain Compared with Roman Law and the Codes or Laws of 59 Other Countries.

lecithin: Commercial lecithin is brown to light yellow, and its consistency varies from plastic to liquid.

money market: Commercial banks: Commercial banks are at the centre of most money markets, as both suppliers and users of funds, and in many markets a few large commercial banks serve also as middlemen. These banks have a unique place because it is their role to furnish an important…

business organization: Partnerships: …countries—is that between civil and commercial partnerships. This distinction depends on whether the purposes for which the partnership is formed fall within the list of commercial activities in the country’s commercial code. These codes always make manufacturing, dealing in, and transporting goods commercial activities, while professional and agricultural activities are…

economics: Definition: …prices—not only the prices of goods and services but the prices of the resources used to produce them. This involves the discovery of two key elements: what governs the way in which human labour, machines, and land are combined in production and how buyers and sellers are brought together in…

Commercial Revolution, Great increase in commerce in Europe that began in the late Middle Ages. It received stimulus from the voyages of exploration undertaken by England, Spain, and other nations to Africa, Asia, and the New World. Among the features associated with it were a surge in overseas

prostitution, the practice of engaging in relatively indiscriminate sexual activity, in general with someone who is not a spouse or a friend, in exchange for immediate payment in money or other valuables. Prostitutes may be female or male or transgender, and prostitution may entail heterosexual or

sex trafficking: Types of sex trafficking: Child sex trafficking refers to the recruitment, harboring, or transportation of minors for the purposes of commercial sex. Under U.S. law, charges of adult sex trafficking require evidence of fraud, force, or coercion of the victim, but charges of child sex trafficking do not: all…

sex trafficking: Types of sex trafficking: Child sex trafficking refers to the recruitment, harboring, or transportation of minors for the purposes of commercial sex. Under U.S. law, charges of adult sex trafficking require evidence of fraud, force, or coercion of the victim, but charges of child sex trafficking do not: all…

space tourism: Suborbital space tourism: Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act (CSLAA) provided guidelines for regulating the safety of commercial human spaceflight in the United States under the auspices of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Under the CSLAA, FAA representatives will attend every launch, evaluate every landing, and work alongside the…

commercial transaction, in law, the core of the legal rules governing business dealings. The most common types of commercial transactions, involving such specialized areas of the law and legal instruments as sale of goods and documents of title, are discussed below. Despite variations of detail,

treaty: …cessions, and disarmament treaties; (2) commercial treaties, including tariff, consular, fishery, and navigation agreements; (3) constitutional and administrative treaties, such as the conventions establishing and regulating international unions, organizations, and specialized agencies; (4) treaties relating to criminal justice, such as the treaties defining international crimes and providing for extradition; (5)…

The Commercial Appeal, morning daily newspaper published in Memphis, Tenn., and one of the leading daily papers of the Mid-South in the United States. Founded in 1840 by Henry van Pelt as a two-page sheet called The Western World and the Memphis Banner of the Constitution, it was shortly renamed

history of Europe: Economic effects: Heightened commercialization showed in a number of areas. Vigorous peasants increased their landholdings, often at the expense of their less fortunate neighbours, who swelled the growing ranks of the near-propertyless. These peasants, in turn, produced food for sale in growing urban markets. Domestic manufacturing soared, as…

jus Latii: …contract under Roman law (commercium) and the right to legal intermarriage (conubium). Upon the decline and depopulation of Latium after 300 bc the application of the jus Latii shifted to the Latin colonies, many of whose settlers had been recruited from the Roman citizenry. These colonies were autonomous communities…

Rage Against the Machine: …New York, New York), bassist Tim Commerford (also known as Tim Bob, b. February 26, 1968, Irvine, California), and drummer Brad Wilk (b. September 5, 1968, Portland, Oregon).

Jeanne Baret: Early life: …1760 Baret met French naturalist Philibert Commerson and joined his household as a servant. Her role included several botanical duties, such as assisting Commerson with his plant categorizations. During this time Baret may have learned to write, though the timing and source of her education in reading and writing are…

Commerzbank AG, major commercial bank in Germany with branches and associates in domestic and foreign finance and banking. Headquarters are in Frankfurt. The bank was established in 1870 as the Commerz- und Disconto-Bank in Hamburg. After two name changes, the bank split into three separate

commesso, technique of fashioning pictures with thin, cut-to-shape pieces of brightly coloured semiprecious stones, developed in Florence in the late 16th century. The stones most commonly used are agates, quartzes, chalcedonies, jaspers, granites, porphyries, petrified woods, and lapis lazuli; all

Malta: Land: …and the uninhabited islets of Kemmunett (Comminotto) and Filfla—lying some 58 miles (93 km) south of Sicily, 180 miles (290 km) north of Libya, and about 180 miles (290 km) east of Tunisia, at the eastern end of the constricted portion of the Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the African…

fracture: A comminuted fracture is one in which the broken ends of the bone are shattered into many pieces. Fractures can also be classified by their configuration on the bone: a transverse fracture is perpendicular to the axis of the bone, while an oblique fracture crosses the…

mineral processing: Comminution: In order to separate the valuable components of an ore from the waste rock, the minerals must be liberated from their interlocked state physically by comminution. As a rule, comminution begins by crushing the ore to below a certain size and finishes by grinding…

balm: Aromatic exudations from species of Commiphora (trees and shrubs of the incense tree family Burseraceae) may also be referred to as balms. Balm of Gilead, or balm of Mecca, is the myrrhlike resin from Commiphora gileadensis of the Arabian Peninsula. The balsam fir (

Sapindales: Burseraceae: …the sources of frankincense, and Commiphora abyssinica and related species that yield myrrh. C. opobalsamum furnishes balm of Gilead. All grow naturally or are cultivated in arid areas, from Ethiopia to India, with other species that produce resins. They are also used in incense and perfumes. Resin collecting is an…

myrrh: …various trees of the genus Commiphora. Noted for its complex, earthy fragrance, myrrh has a long history of use as a flavoring agent, as an aromatic ingredient in cosmetics, and in traditional medicine.

Sapindales: Burseraceae: C. opobalsamum furnishes balm of Gilead. All grow naturally or are cultivated in arid areas, from Ethiopia to India, with other species that produce resins. They are also used in incense and perfumes. Resin collecting is an important part of the economy in Ethiopia and…

intendant, administrative official under the ancien régime in France who served as an agent of the king in each of the provinces, or généralités. From about 1640 until 1789, the intendancies were the chief instrument used to achieve administrative unification and centralization under the French

Châtelet: …was granted authority over the commissaires-enquêteurs-examinateurs of the Châtelet. The latter, a permanent staff in existence since 1327, were responsible for security and public order, for the supervision of prisons, including the Bastille, and for the regulation of the food supply of Paris. The jurisdiction of the Châtelet was abolished…

nuclear weapon: France: …October 18, 1945, the French Atomic Energy Commission (Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique; CEA) was established by Gen. Charles de Gaulle with the objective of exploiting the scientific, industrial, and military potential of atomic energy. The military application of atomic energy did not begin until 1951. In July 1952 the National…

sculpture: General methods: …the form of a direct commission or through a competition. If the commission is for a portrait or a private sculpture, the client may only require to see examples of the artist’s previous work; but if it is a public commission, the sculptor is usually expected to submit drawings and…

A commission is a service fee charged by a broker or financial professional for the facilitation of a financial asset’s purchase or sale. In the regulated securities and commodities markets, buyers and sellers require the services of a registered entity to transact sales of assets such as stocks,

commission, in political science, a multiheaded body created to perform a particular function, whether it be administrative, legislative, or judicial in nature. In the United Kingdom commissions are mostly used for special investigations and are distinguished according to their terms of appointment

agency: Commission agent (German Kommissionär, French commissionaire, Italian commissionario): …can be identified as follows: The commission agent accepts or sells goods for the account of his principal, but in his own name. He is independent of his principal, has a claim for his commission, and, except in France, has the right…

Lázaro Cárdenas: …the executive member of the Commission of the Balsas River Valley, which ran one of the country’s major regional electrification and development agencies, in the state of Guerrero. His sharply diminished responsibilities notwithstanding, he remained a major figure in national politics. He became the symbol of the left in the…

Commission on Global Governance, international commission of 28 individuals established in 1992 to suggest new ways in which the international community might cooperate to further an agenda of global security. The commission’s understanding of security was based on a broad definition that included

Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD), U.S. organization established in 1987 that has sponsored U.S. general election presidential debates since 1988. The stated mission of the Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD) is In 1987 the chairmen of the Republican and Democratic national committees,

commission: …are administered by an elected commission, usually consisting of three, five, or seven commissioners. Each commissioner serves as the head of one or more departments. In most cities, however, the commission system has given way to the council–manager system. Commission systems are still widely used to govern specific aspects of…

commission: …are administered by an elected commission, usually consisting of three, five, or seven commissioners. Each commissioner serves as the head of one or more departments. In most cities, however, the commission system has given way to the council–manager system. Commission systems are still widely used to govern specific aspects of…

Mollen Commission, commission created by New York City Mayor David Dinkins in 1994 to assess the extent of corruption in the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Informally named for its chairman, Milton Mollen, the city’s former deputy mayor for public safety, the commission uncovered blatant

If you follow the market, you know that uptrends and downtrends come and go. But there’s one trend that’s been sinking since the 1970s: commissions. For many decades, brokers have been embroiled in a perpetual price war, beginning with discount brokers that upended the full-service brokerage model.

Western architecture: From the 19th to the early 20th century: The commissioners responsible for the spending of this money (together with an additional £500,000 voted in 1824) discovered that a Gothic church cost less to build than a Neoclassical one, with its requisite stone portico; this determined the widespread utilization of the Gothic style. The first…

nervous system: Simple bilateral systems: …a broad connection called a commissure. Longitudinal nerve cords, usually three to five pairs, extend posteriorly from the brain; they are connected by transverse commissures, and smaller, lateral nerves extend from the cords. The lateral nerves give rise to the peripheral nerve plexuses. The submuscular nerve plexus—consisting of sensory cells,…

Mauricio Macri: …Macri founded the political party Commitment for Change (CPC), which provided the foundation for the successor party, Republican Proposal (PRO). Under his leadership, over the next dozen years, PRO was transformed into Argentina’s first new nationally viable and competitive political party in more than 60 years.

warrant: Other judicial warrants include escape warrants, issued for the recapture of escaped prisoners, and warrants of commitment, issued to incarcerate a prisoner either before or after trial.

Roddy Doyle: Barrytown novels: …editions of his comedic novel The Commitments (1987) through his own company, King Farouk, until a London-based publisher took over. A raucous, often profane story of a group of young working-class Dubliners who form a soul band, it was the first installment of Doyle’s soon-to-be internationally acclaimed Barrytown novels—so called…

Alan Parker: His later films included The Commitments (1991), Evita (1996), and The Life of David Gale (2003).

Mbongeni Ngema: Based on Ngema’s experiences with Committed Artists, a theatre troupe he founded in Johannesburg in 1983, Mama!—through its joyous songs and exuberant dance—tells the story of the youngsters who joined the troupe. The determined title character was based on Mandela’s wife, Winnie, who had helped Committed Artists. Among Ngema’s other…

radiation: Units for measuring ionizing radiation: …of radiation is called the committed dose, or dose commitment.

Mekong River: Irrigation and flood control: …under the auspices of the Interim Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin (Mekong Committee), organized in 1957 by Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and South Vietnam. (After 1975 Vietnam replaced South Vietnam on the committee, and Cambodia ceased to participate, although Cambodia has resumed membership since 1991.) The…

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), federation of affiliated North American industrial unions that originated in the mid-1930s within the American Federation of Labor (AFL), from which it was expelled in 1937. The AFL limited its membership to craft (skill) unions and refused to support the

Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights, Sunnite Muslim group opposed to the ruling Saud dynasty in Saudi Arabia. The group was founded in 1992 and consists largely of academics and lower-level Muslim clergy. It considers itself a pressure group for peaceful reform and for improving human

Russia: Government: A committee of ministers coordinated to some extent the affairs of the different departments, but its importance depended on circumstances and on individuals. When the tsar was abroad, the committee was in charge of internal affairs. Aleksey Arakcheyev was for a time secretary of the committee,…

Jim Crow law: Challenging the Separate Car Act: A citizens’ committee (the Citizens’ Committee to Test the Constitutionality of the Separate Car Law), drawn primarily from the Creole community, raised $3,000 to fund a lawsuit, and Tourgée agreed to be lead counsel in the case. But they also needed a local lawyer, since the challenge to the…

Ṣunʿ Allāh Ibrāhīm: In Al-Lajnah (1981; The Committee), his best-known novel, he satirized Egyptian Pres. Anwar el-Sādāt’s policy of infitāḥ (Arabic: “opening”), which decentralized the economy and opened Egypt to foreign investment but failed to curb censorship. Because of that censorship, the novel had to be published in Lebanon.

Havana: Government: …and neighbourhood groups called the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs), has led to a declining role for the city government, which, nevertheless, still provides such essential services as garbage collection and fire protection. The CDRs, which exist in virtually every street and apartment block, have two main…

Chambre des Requêtes: …first instance for those with committimus (exemption from justice in lower courts).

United Kingdom: The conquest: …of the Atrebates ruled by Commius and his sons Tincommius, Eppillus, and Verica. Tasciovanus was succeeded in about 5 ce by his son Cunobelinus, who, during a long reign, established power all over the southeast, which he ruled from Camulodunum (Colchester). Beyond these kingdoms lay the Iceni in what is…

commode, in dress, wire framework that was worn (c. 1690–1710 in France and England) on the head to hold in position a topknot made of ribbon, starched linen, and lace. The complete headgear was known as a “fontange,” or tower. Supposedly, it had its beginning when a favourite of Louis XIV, whose

commode, type of furniture resembling the English chest of drawers, in use in France in the late 17th century. Most commodes had marble tops, and some were fitted with pairs of doors. André-Charles Boulle was among the first to make commodes. These early forms resembled sarcophagi and were commonly

commode, type of furniture resembling the English chest of drawers, in use in France in the late 17th century. Most commodes had marble tops, and some were fitted with pairs of doors. André-Charles Boulle was among the first to make commodes. These early forms resembled sarcophagi and were commonly

Commodianus was a Christian Latin poet, perhaps of African origin. His Carmen apologeticum (“Song with Narrative”) expounds Christian doctrine, dealing with the Creation, God’s revelation of himself to man, Antichrist, and the end of the world. All but two of his Instructiones—80 poems in two

commodities fraud, any illegal attempt to obtain money in connection with a contract for the future delivery of assets, which ultimately are never exchanged. Commodities fraud typically involves assets traded on organized exchanges such as the Chicago Board of Trade, the Chicago Mercantile

economics: Definition: …prices—not only the prices of goods and services but the prices of the resources used to produce them. This involves the discovery of two key elements: what governs the way in which human labour, machines, and land are combined in production and how buyers and sellers are brought together in…

marketing: The evolving discipline of marketing: Commodity analysis studies the ways in which a product or product group is brought to market. A commodity analysis of milk, for example, traces the ways in which milk is collected at individual dairy farms, transported to and processed at local dairy cooperatives, and shipped…

Agricultural Adjustment Administration: In addition, the Commodity Credit Corporation, with a crop loan and storage program, was established to make price-supporting loans and purchases of specific commodities.

Irving Fisher: …power (also known as the “compensated” dollar or “commodity” dollar). Fisher believed the dollar should be defined not by the weight of gold but by the value of gold; this value could be determined by an index number based on the price of a given set of goods.

commodity exchange, organized market for the purchase and sale of enforceable contracts to deliver a commodity such as wheat, gold, or cotton or a financial instrument such as U.S. Treasury bills or Eurodollars at some future date. Such contracts are known as futures (q.v.) and are bought and sold

Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), agency of the U.S. federal government charged with regulating commodity and financial futures and options contracts and markets. The CFTC protects market users and the public from fraud, manipulation, and abusive practices related to sales of these

commodity trade, the international trade in primary goods. Such goods are raw or partly refined materials whose value mainly reflects the costs of finding, gathering, or harvesting them; they are traded for processing or incorporation into final goods. Examples include crude oil, cotton, rubber,

plastic: The composition, structure, and properties of plastics: …of plastics as either “commodity” resins or “specialty” resins. (The term resin dates from the early years of the plastics industry; it originally referred to naturally occurring amorphous solids such as shellac and rosin.) Commodity resins are plastics that are produced at high volume and low cost for the…

commodity trade, the international trade in primary goods. Such goods are raw or partly refined materials whose value mainly reflects the costs of finding, gathering, or harvesting them; they are traded for processing or incorporation into final goods. Examples include crude oil, cotton, rubber,

captain: Navy a commodore is ranked above a captain and below a rear admiral; the designation has usually been used only in wartime. Outside the navies, the master of any vessel is addressed as captain, and the term is usually applied as a courtesy to marine pilots.

personal computer: From hobby computers to Apple: …Radio Shack TRS-80, and the Commodore Business Machines Personal Electronic Transactor (PET). These machines used eight-bit microprocessors (which process information in groups of eight bits, or binary digits, at a time) and possessed rather limited memory capacity—i.e., the ability to address a given quantity of data held in memory storage.…

personal computer: From hobby computers to Apple: …Radio Shack TRS-80, and the Commodore Business Machines Personal Electronic Transactor (PET). These machines used eight-bit microprocessors (which process information in groups of eight bits, or binary digits, at a time) and possessed rather limited memory capacity—i.e., the ability to address a given quantity of data held in memory storage.…

Lionel Richie: …the funk and rhythm-and-blues group the Commodores, with Richie as a lead vocalist.

Commodus was a Roman emperor from 177 to 192 (sole emperor after 180). His brutal misrule precipitated civil strife that ended 84 years of stability and prosperity within the empire. In 177 Lucius was made coruler and heir to his father, the emperor Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161–180). Lucius joined

Hadrian: Last years: …life of Ceionius, later renamed Lucius Aelius Caesar, portended a disastrous reign. Fortunately, he died two years later, and Hadrian, close to death himself, had to choose again. This time he picked an 18-year-old boy named Annius Verus, the future emperor Marcus Aurelius.

commons, in Anglo-American property law, an area of land for use by the public. The term originated in feudal England, where the “waste,” or uncultivated land, of a lord’s manor could be used for pasture and firewood by his tenants. For centuries this right of commons conflicted with the lord’s

Common is an American hip-hop artist, actor, and activist who became a mainstream success in the early 21st century, known for intelligent and positive lyrics that were performed in a spoken-word style. He was the first rapper to win a Grammy Award, an Academy Award, and an Emmy Award. Common’s

childhood disease and disorder: Disorders associated with adolescence: Acne vulgaris (common acne) is a prevalent skin condition that has its onset during adolescence. At puberty, androgenic stimulation of the skin’s sebaceous (oil) glands (which empty into the canals of the hair follicles) causes increased production of the fatty substance sebum. In susceptible individuals,…

adder: The European common adder, or European viper (V. berus), a serpent often mentioned in works of literature, is a stout-bodied snake that is widely distributed across Europe and Asia. It even ranges north of the Arctic Circle in Norway. It grows to a maximum length of approximately 85 cm (33…

European Community: …treaty also provided for a common agricultural policy, which was established in 1962 to protect EEC farmers from agricultural imports. The first reduction in EEC internal tariffs was implemented in January 1959, and by July 1968 all internal tariffs had been removed. Between 1958 and 1968 trade among the EEC’s…

agrimony: Common species: Common agrimony, also known as church steeples (Agrimonia eupatoria), is a herbaceous hardy perennial that is native to Europe and North Africa but is widespread in other northern temperate regions. Inhabiting hedge banks and the borders of fields, the plant grows to about 120 cm…

green anaconda, common name for what are generally considered to be two species of nonvenomous semiaquatic boa (family Boidae) native to South America. Green anacondas are known for their immense size, some recorded specimens measuring as long as 9 meters (30 feet) and weighing more than 250 kg

angel shark: …the common angel shark (Squatina squatina), which resides in the waters bordering northern Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, is popular among recreational anglers.

ani: The common, or smooth-billed, ani (C. ani), found from southern Florida to Argentina, is a bird 36 cm (14 inches) long that looks like a huge-beaked grackle. The great ani (C. major) is common in swamplands of South America, chiefly east of the Andes. The groove-billed…

European Parliament, legislative assembly of the European Union (EU). Inaugurated in 1958 as the Common Assembly, the European Parliament originally consisted of representatives selected by the national parliaments of EU member countries. Beginning in 1979, members of the European Parliament (MEPs)

nurse shark: …common Atlantic nurse shark (G. cirratum), the family includes the tawny nurse shark (N. ferrugineus) and the shorttail nurse shark (P. brevicaudatum). They are not related to the sand tiger shark (Carcharias taurus)—a type of sand shark inhabiting the waters above the continental shelves in most warm and temperate…