phase diagram, graph showing the limiting conditions for solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single substance or of a mixture of substances while undergoing changes in pressure and temperature or in some other combination of variables, such as solubility and temperature. The Figure shows a

judicial restraint: The canon of constitutional doubt advises courts to construe statutes so as to avoid constitutional questions. If two readings of a statute are possible, and one raises doubt about the statute’s constitutionality, the other should be preferred.

constitutional engineering, process by which political actors devise higher law, which is usually—but not always—specified in a formal written document and labeled the constitution. Any particular instance of constitutional engineering must deal with certain basic questions of organization and

constitutionalism, doctrine that a government’s authority is determined by a body of laws or constitution. Although constitutionalism is sometimes regarded as a synonym for limited government, that is only one interpretation and by no means the most prominent one historically. More generally

William Stubbs: …massive study of historical synthesis, The Constitutional History of England in its Origin and Development, 3 vol. (1873–78), which traces the development of English institutions from the Teutonic invasion of Britain until 1485. This work has been much criticized, however, and Stubbs’s best work is now held to be the…

United Kingdom: Domestic responses to the American Revolution: In 1780 they founded the Society for Constitutional Information, which was designed to build public support for political change through the systematic production and distribution of libertarian propaganda.

hydrocarbon: Alkanes: …and are referred to as constitutional isomers. (An older name is structural isomers.) The compounds n-butane and isobutane are constitutional isomers and are the only ones possible for the formula C4H10. Because isomers are different compounds, they can have different physical and chemical properties. For example, n-butane has a higher…

constitutional law, the body of rules, doctrines, and practices that govern the operation of political communities. In modern times the most important political community has been the state. Modern constitutional law is the offspring of nationalism as well as of the idea that the state must protect

Constitutional Laws of 1875, In France, a series of fundamental laws that, taken collectively, came to be known as the constitution of the Third Republic. It established a two-house legislature (with an indirectly elected Senate as a conservative check on the popularly elected Chamber of Deputies);

constitutional monarchy, system of government in which a monarch (see monarchy) shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The monarch may be the de facto head of state or a purely ceremonial leader. The constitution allocates the rest of the government’s power to the legislature

Inukai Tsuyoshi: …a new political party, the Constitutional National Party (Rikken Kokumintō). In 1913 he headed a popular movement against the autocratic and unpopular government of the former army general Katsura Tarō. As a result of Inukai’s efforts, Katsura was forced to resign, opening the way for the gradual development of a…

democracy: Constitutional oligarchies: After the western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, the Italian Peninsula broke up into a congeries of smaller political entities. About six centuries later, in northern Italy, some of these entities developed into more or less independent city-states and inaugurated systems of government…

Federalist Society: …constitutional and statutory interpretation—known as originalism and textualism, respectively—that supposedly prevent judicial misreadings of the law by emphasizing the public meanings of the words in which a constitutional or legal provision was expressed at the time it was written rather than the intentions of the provision’s drafters. Notably, the Federalist…

Kōshaku Katsura Tarō: His Rikken Dōshikai was at first unsuccessful but eventually became one of the two major political groups in pre-World War II Japan. Katsura’s third premiership lasted only seven weeks (December 1912–February 1913) and ended amidst riots against his oligarchic methods and his program for greater armaments.…

Kang Youwei: …to Canada and founded the China Reform Association (Zhongguo Weixinhui; popularly known as the Save the Emperor Association and in 1907 renamed the Constitutional Party) to carry on his plans.

Kaishintō, a leading Japanese political party from its founding in 1882 by the democratic leader Ōkuma Shigenobu until its merger with several smaller parties in 1896. It generally represented the urban elite of intellectuals, industrialists, and merchants. Its platform, like that of its main

judicial review, power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative arms of the government and to determine whether such actions are consistent with the constitution. Actions judged inconsistent are declared unconstitutional and, therefore,

Shiʿi: Shiʿi dynasties: …also motivated the early 20th-century Constitutional Revolution, which established a constitution and a parliament in Iran to check the efforts of the Qājār shahs to further aggrandize their power.

sovereignty: History: Austin’s notion of legislative sovereignty did not entirely fit the American situation. The Constitution of the United States, the fundamental law of the federal union, did not endow the national legislature with supreme power but imposed important restrictions upon it. A further complication was added when the Supreme Court…

Carl Schmitt: His magnum opus, Constitutional Theory (1927), offered an analysis of the Weimar Constitution as well as an account of the principles underlying any democratic constitution. In The Concept of the Political, composed in 1927 and fully elaborated in 1932, Schmitt defined “the political” as the eternal propensity of…

Portugal: Justice: …Council of State and the Constitutional Tribunal. Members of the Council of State are the president of the republic (who presides over the council), the president of the parliament, the prime minister, the president of the Constitutional Tribunal, the attorney general, the presidents of the governments of the autonomous regions,…

Constitutional Union Party, U.S. political party that sought in the pre-Civil War election of 1860 to rally support for the Union and the Constitution without regard to sectional issues. Formed in 1859 by former Whigs and members of the Know-Nothing Party, the party nominated John Bell for

Alexander H. Stephens: His book A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States, 2 vol. (1868–70), is perhaps the best statement of the Southern position on state sovereignty and secession.

constitutionalism, doctrine that a government’s authority is determined by a body of laws or constitution. Although constitutionalism is sometimes regarded as a synonym for limited government, that is only one interpretation and by no means the most prominent one historically. More generally

Emiliano Zapata: The Plan of Ayala: …Venustiano Carranza, had organized the Constitutionalist Army to defeat the new dictator. Huerta was forced to abandon the country in July 1914.

Nicaragua: Political process: Leading political parties include the Constitutionalist Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista; PLC), the Conservative Party of Nicaragua (Partido Conservador de Nicaragua; PCN), and the Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional; FSLN). The FSLN was established in the early 1960s as a guerrilla group dedicated to the overthrow…

Finland: The struggle for independence: …of Finland’s political parties: the Constitutionalists (the Swedish Party and the Young Finnish Party), who demanded that no one observe the illegal enactments; and the Compliers (the Old Finnish Party), who were ready to give way in everything that did not, in their opinion, affect Finland’s vital interest. The Constitutionalists…

Apostolic Constitutions, largest collection of ecclesiastical law that has survived from early Christianity. The full title suggests that these regulations were drawn up by the Apostles and transmitted to the church by Clement of Rome. In modern times it is generally accepted that the constitutions

canon law: The Corpus Juris Canonici (c. 1140–c. 1500): The Constitutiones Clementinae (“Constitutions of Clement”) of Pope Clement V, most of which were enacted at the Council of Vienne (1311–12), were promulgated on October 25, 1317, by Pope John XXII, but they were not an exclusive collection. The Decretum Gratiani, the Liber extra, Liber sextus,…

William Of Hirsau: His Constitutiones Hirsaugienses (“Constitutions of Hirsau”) went beyond his model, establishing a stricter discipline in common prayer and silence. In 1077 William instituted a new category of monks, the fratres exteriores (literally, “external brothers,” i.e., lay brothers), to perform manual tasks in the monastery; these monks…

constitutiones principum, enactments or legislation issued by the ancient Roman emperors. The chief forms of imperial legislation were (1) edicta, or proclamations, which the emperor, like other magistrates, might issue, (2) mandata, or instructions to subordinates, especially provincial governors,

Jules-Amédée Barbey d’Aurevilly: …Sainte-Beuve as literary critic for Le Constitutionnel, and on Sainte-Beuve’s death in 1869 he became sole critic. His reputation grew, and he came to be known as le Connétable des Lettres (“The Constable of Literature”). Though he was often arbitrary, vehement, and intensely personal in his criticism, especially of Émile…

St. Ignatius of Loyola: The Jesuit Constitutions: …was the composition of the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus. In them he decreed that his followers were to abandon some of the traditional forms of the religious life, such as chanting the divine office, physical punishments, and penitential garb, in favour of greater adaptability and mobility; they also…

cytogenetics: banding (Q-banding), reverse banding (R-banding), constitutive heterochromatin (or centromere) banding (C-banding), and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). G-banding is one of the most-used chromosomal staining methods. In this approach, chromosomes are first treated with an enzyme known as trypsin and then with Giemsa stain. All chromosomes can be individually identified…

glacier: Glacier flow: …as the flow law or constitutive law of ice: the rate of shear strain is approximately proportional to the cube of the shear stress. Often called the Glen flow law by glaciologists, this constitutive law is the basis for all analyses of the flow of ice sheets and glaciers.

international law: Recognition: The “constitutive” theory, in contrast, contends that the act of recognition itself actually creates the state.

machine: Constrained motion: The most distinctive characteristic of a machine is that the parts are interconnected and guided in such a way that their motions relative to one another are constrained. Relative to the block, for example, the piston of a reciprocating engine is constrained by…

mechanics: Configuration space: …describing what is known as constraints on a problem. Constraints are generally ways of describing the effects of forces that are best not explicitly introduced into the problem. For example, consider the simple case of a falling body near the surface of Earth. The equations of motion—equations (4), (5), and…

computer science: Programming languages: …extension of logic programming is constraint logic programming, in which pattern matching is replaced by the more general operation of constraint satisfaction.

optimization: Basic ideas: … = 15 just touches the constraint set at the point (5, 5). If k is increased further, the values of x1 and x2 will lie outside the set of feasible solutions. Thus, the best solution is that in which equal quantities of each commodity are made. It is no coincidence…

fungus: Predation: Other fungi produce hyphal loops that ensnare small animals, thereby allowing the fungus to use its haustoria to penetrate and kill a trapped animal. Perhaps the most amazing of these fungal traps are the so-called constricting rings of some species of Arthrobotrys, Dactylella, and Dactylaria—soil-inhabiting fungi easily grown…

boa constrictor: It kills by constriction, first grasping the prey and then using its coils to exert a deadly amount of pressure. Slow moving and of a mild temperament, it is easily tamed. Farmers keep the snake around their fields and storage sheds to reduce the rodent populations. The red-tailed…

muscle: Comparative anatomy: Constrictors and sphincters diminish the volume of spaces or the area of structures, and dilators increase them. The names of muscles in humans often have been applied to grossly equivalent muscles in animals, a situation that often causes confusion.

constringence, in optics, a measure of the dispersive power of a transparent substance for the visible spectrum. Letting nF, nD, and nC represent the indices of refraction for light of the wavelengths λF (blue), λD (yellow), and λC (red), the constringence (commonly denoted by the Greek letter nu,

Airbus: CASA: In the first decade after its founding in 1923, Spain’s Construcciones Aeronáuticas S.A. (CASA) built a number of Wal “flying boats” under license from Dornier, and it undertook the development of its own first design, a light aircraft called CASA-1. During and after World…

construct, in psychology, a tool used to facilitate understanding of human behaviour. All sciences are built on systems of constructs and their interrelations. The natural sciences use constructs such as gravity, temperature, phylogenetic dominance, tectonic pressure, and global warming. Likewise,

personality assessment: Evaluation techniques: …impressive kind of validity (so-called construct validity) may be pursued. A construct is a theoretical statement concerning some underlying, unobservable aspect of an individual’s characteristics or of his internal state. (“Intelligence,” for example, is a construct; one cannot hold “it” in one’s hand, or weigh “it,” or put “it” in…

history of logic: Leibniz: …devising what he called a “universally characteristic language” (lingua characteristica universalis) that would, first, notationally represent concepts by displaying the more basic concepts of which they were composed, and second, naturally represent (in the manner of graphs or pictures, “iconically”) the concept in a way that could be easily grasped…

F.A. Hayek: The critique of socialism and the defense of classical liberal institutions of F.A. Hayek: …between “spontaneous orders” and “constructed orders.” He averred that many social institutions—among them language, money, the common law, the moral code, and trade—are instances of spontaneous orders. These orders arise as a result of human action, and they come about as a result of individuals pursuing goals, but they…

Tino Sehgal: …label performance artist) as “constructed situations,” a term inspired by French Marxist theorist Guy Debord’s treatise about the “construction of situations” (1957). Sehgal trained “interpreters” to approach museum and gallery visitors with a comment or a question, in order to engage them not just in talk but in performance.…

history of logic: The continuum problem and the axiom of constructibility: …universe is known as the axiom of constructibility. The construction of the model proceeds stepwise, the steps being correlated with the finite and infinite ordinal numbers. At each stage, all the sets that can be defined in the universe so far reached are added. At a stage correlated with a…

Murray Edelman: …and mass political action, and Constructing the Political Spectacle (1988), in which he argued that even those who are the most well-versed in politics would exhibit characteristics of the dominant ideology—even if they developed and espoused ideologies that ran counter to it

construction, the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. Construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed

earthquake-resistant construction: Construction methods can vary dramatically throughout the world, so one must be aware of local construction methods and resource availability before concluding whether a particular earthquake-resistant design will be practical and realistic for the region.

mathematics: Analytic geometry: …Géométrie was to achieve the construction of solutions to geometric problems by means of instruments that were acceptable generalizations of ruler and compass. Algebra was a tool to be used in this program:

solid-waste management: Composition and properties: Construction and demolition (C&D) waste (or debris) is a significant component of total solid waste quantities (about 20 percent in the United States), although it is not considered to be part of the MSW stream. However, because C&D waste is inert and nonhazardous, it is…

history of flight: General aviation: …de Tourisme et d’Affaires, or Socata. The new company continued to build the proven Rallye, a trim two-passenger monoplane, but achieved notable success with its own range of larger, more powerful single-engine business planes with retractable gear. By the 1990s, the performance and reliability of the Socata Tobago and Trinidad…

Western philosophy: Speech-act theory: In The Construction of Social Reality (1995), Searle argued that many social and political institutions are created through speech acts. Money, for example, is created through a declaration by a government to the effect that pieces of paper or metal of a certain manufacture and design…

John Napier: Contribution to mathematics: …was published in 1614, and Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio (Construction of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms), which was published two years after his death. In the former, he outlined the steps that had led to his invention.

constitution theory, in the philosophy of Logical Positivism, the view that certain concepts—in particular, scientific ones—are in the last analysis defined by other concepts that express relations between experiences. Constitution theory was fully articulated by Rudolf Carnap, a philosopher of

construction, the techniques and industry involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those used to provide shelter. Construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed

Pierre Vernier: In La Construction, l’usage, et les propriétés du quadrant nouveau de mathématiques (1631; “The Construction, Use, and Properties of the New Mathematical Quadrant”), he described his new measuring instrument. The book also contained a trigonometry table for sines and a method for deriving the angles of…

apraxia: Constructional apraxia, typically caused by a lesion in the right cerebral hemisphere, is the inability to construct elements in the correct fashion to form a meaningful whole—e.g., being unable to build a structure with blocks or to copy a design.

Seymour Papert: …he referred to as “constructionism,” in that it focuses on the idea of mental construction. Children learn best, he argued, through tinkering, unstructured activities that resemble play, and research based on partial knowledge—by solving problems that are interesting to them, much as they do in nonschool situations.

analysis: Constructive analysis: One philosophical feature of traditional analysis, which worries mathematicians whose outlook is especially concrete, is that many basic theorems assert the existence of various numbers or functions but do not specify what those numbers or functions are. For instance, the completeness property of…

20th-century international relations: Regional crises: This policy of “constructive engagement,” by which the U.S. State Department hoped to retain leverage over Pretoria, came under criticism every time a new Black riot or act of white repression occurred. Critics demanded economic divestment from, and stringent sanctions against, South Africa, but supporters of the policy…

interference: …wave amplitudes are reinforced, producing constructive interference. But if the two waves are out of phase by 1 2 period (i.e., one is minimum when the other is maximum), the result is destructive interference, producing complete annulment if they are of equal amplitude. The solid line in Figures A, B,…

income tax: Capital gains: …sale, a policy known as “constructive” realization.

Francisco Sanches: …and philosopher who espoused a “constructive skepticism” that rejected mathematical truths as unreal and Aristotle’s theory of knowledge as false.

Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine: Professional life: …the English legal doctrine of constructive treason—i.e., treason imputed to a person from his conduct or course of actions, though none of his separate actions amounts to treason. Erskine appeared in most of the major cases that arose out of the disruption of commercial relations with France, which had entered…

trust: …remedy a legal wrong (“constructive trusts”).

distance learning: Behaviourism and constructivism: During the first half of the 20th century, the use of educational technology in the United States was heavily influenced by two developing schools of educational philosophy. Behaviourism, led by the American psychologist John B. Watson and later by B.F. Skinner, discounted all subjective…

foundations of mathematics: Foundational logic: …be saved by a 20th-century construction usually ascribed to Church, though he had been anticipated by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). According to Church, the number 2 is the process of iteration; that is, 2 is the function which to every function f assigns its iterate 2(f) = f…

international relations: Constructivism: In the late 20th century the study of international relations was increasingly influenced by constructivism. According to this approach, the behaviour of humans is determined by their identity, which itself is shaped by society’s values, history, practices, and institutions. Constructivists hold that all institutions,…

Constructivism, Russian artistic and architectural movement that was first influenced by Cubism and Futurism and is generally considered to have been initiated in 1913 with the “painting reliefs”—abstract geometric constructions—of Vladimir Tatlin. The expatriate Russian sculptors Antoine Pevsner

consubstantiation, in Christianity, doctrine of the Eucharist affirming that Christ’s body and blood substantially coexist with the consecrated bread and wine. The doctrine gained acceptance in the Protestant Reformation, though the term is unofficially and inaccurately used to describe the

Bernard de Cluny: …is Bernard’s compilation of the Consuetudines Cluniacenses (“Customs of Cluny”), a systematic, annotated collection of the monastic principles and usages governing the Cluniac reform of the 6th-century Benedictine Rule.

consul, in foreign service, a public officer who is commissioned by a state to reside in a foreign country for the purpose of fostering the commercial affairs of its citizens in that foreign country and performing such routine functions as issuing visas and renewing passports. A consul, as such,

consul, in ancient Rome, either of the two highest of the ordinary magistracies in the ancient Roman Republic. After the fall of the kings (c. 509 bc) the consulship preserved regal power in a qualified form. Absolute authority was expressed in the consul’s imperium (q.v.), but its arbitrary

Gian Carlo Menotti: In 1950 Menotti’s opera The Consul, which won a Pulitzer Prize, was produced on Broadway. Like all of his operas, it is a work of great theatrical effectiveness. Set in an unnamed country under totalitarian rule, it deals with the vain efforts of a woman to gain an exit…

history of Europe: Urban growth: …an executive magistracy, named the consulate (to stress the continuity with republican Rome). In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, this process—consisting of the establishment of juridical autonomy, the emergence of a permanent officialdom, and the spread of power beyond the walls of the city to the contado and…

Consulate, (1799–1804) French government established after the Coup of 18–19 Brumaire (Nov. 9–10, 1799), during the French Revolution. The Constitution of the Year VIII created an executive consisting of three consuls, but the First Consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, wielded all real power, while the

Book of the Consulate of the Sea, a celebrated collection of Mediterranean maritime customs and ordinances in the Catalan language, published in 1494. The title is derived from the commercial judges of the maritime cities on the Mediterranean coast, who were known as consuls. The book contains a

consul, in ancient Rome, either of the two highest of the ordinary magistracies in the ancient Roman Republic. After the fall of the kings (c. 509 bc) the consulship preserved regal power in a qualified form. Absolute authority was expressed in the consul’s imperium (q.v.), but its arbitrary

poet laureate, title first granted in England in the 17th century for poetic excellence. Its holder is a salaried member of the British royal household, but the post no longer has specific poetic duties. A similar position was created in the United States in 1936, and many other countries appoint a

John Amos Comenius: Social reform of John Amos Comenius: …to completing his great work, Consultation. He managed to get parts of it published, and when he was dying in 1670 he begged his close associates to publish the rest of it after his death. They failed to do so, and the manuscripts were lost until 1935, when they were…

Reformed and Presbyterian churches: Reformed Christians in the ecumenical movement: …place since 1961 by a Consultation on Church Union that included Reformed, Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist, Episcopal, and Disciples churches.

Oman: Constitutional framework: …replaced in 1991 by a Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shūrā), members of which were at first appointed and later elected from several dozen districts (wilāyāt); women from a few constituencies were given the right to serve on the council. In 1996 the sultan announced the establishment of the Basic Law of…

David Cronenberg: Other work: …notable work includes the novel Consumed (2014), about a salacious pair of journalists investigating a philosopher who may have eaten his wife.

zoology: Ecology: Animals are called consumers because they ingest plant material or other animals that feed on plants, using the energy stored in this food to sustain themselves. Lastly, the organisms known as decomposers, mostly fungi and bacteria, break down plant and animal material and return it to the environment…

income tax: Economic effects: …tax is largely shifted to consumers through short-run price rises, while other studies support the opposite conclusion.

consumer advocacy, movement or policies aimed at regulating the products, services, methods, and standards of manufacturers, sellers, and advertisers in the interests of the buyer. Such regulation may be institutional, statutory, or embodied in a voluntary code accepted by a particular industry, or

consumer affairs in India, economic and legal policies concerned with protecting the rights and interests of consumers in the marketplace. These policies involve laws, standards, and institutions designed to ensure fair business practices, product safety, and the resolution of complaints. In India

consumer confidence, an economic indicator that measures the degree of optimism that consumers have regarding the overall state of a country’s economy and their own financial situations. It is a vital source of economic information, as private consumption constitutes about two-thirds of all

consumer confidence: …in the United States, the Consumer Confidence Index (CCI), is based on a monthly survey of 5,000 households that is conducted by the Conference Board, an independent research association. The CCI is closely watched by businesses, the Federal Reserve, and investors.

cooperative, organization owned by and operated for the benefit of those using its services. Cooperatives have been successful in a number of fields, including the processing and marketing of farm products, the purchasing of other kinds of equipment and raw materials, and in the wholesaling,

consumer credit, short- and intermediate-term loans used to finance the purchase of commodities or services for personal consumption or to refinance debts incurred for such purposes. The loans may be supplied by lenders in the form of cash loans or by sellers in the form of sales credit. Consumer

marketing: Consumer customers: Four major types of factors influence consumer buying behaviour: cultural, social, personal, and psychological.

supply and demand, in economics, relationship between the quantity of a commodity that producers wish to sell at various prices and the quantity that consumers wish to buy. It is the main model of price determination used in economic theory. The price of a commodity is determined by the interaction

You have material needs in life—and also desires and wants. Companies in the consumer discretionary sector of the stock market make products that you may intensely covet but not need. For that reason, companies that offer goods and services subject to discretionary spending can (and do) see