textile: Power-driven looms: William Crompton, an English machinist working in the machine shop attached to a cotton factory in Massachusetts, undertook the development of a loom that could weave fancy goods, patented in both the United States and England in 1837. The loom was later much improved by…

Victor Hugo: Early years (1802–30): …1827 of his verse drama Cromwell. The subject of this play, with its near-contemporary overtones, is that of a national leader risen from the people who seeks to be crowned king. But the play’s reputation rested largely on the long, elaborate preface, in which Hugo proposed a doctrine of Romanticism…

Cromwell tank, British medium tank that was used in the later stages of World War II. The Cromwell was designed to replace the Crusader tank (a lightweight cruiser, or cavalry, tank that had seen extensive use in North Africa) and was driven by a 600-horsepower Rolls-Royce Meteor engine. The

Cromwell tank, British medium tank that was used in the later stages of World War II. The Cromwell was designed to replace the Crusader tank (a lightweight cruiser, or cavalry, tank that had seen extensive use in North Africa) and was driven by a 600-horsepower Rolls-Royce Meteor engine. The

John Cromwell was an American actor and director of stage and screen who, during a career that spanned more than 70 years, directed a number of classic movies, including Of Human Bondage (1934), Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1940), and Anna and the King of Siam (1946). (Read Martin Scorsese’s Britannica

Henry Cromwell was the fourth son of Oliver Cromwell and the British ruler of Ireland from 1657 to 1659. Cromwell studied at the University of Cambridge and Gray’s Inn, London. During part of the English Civil Wars he served under his father in the Parliamentary army in England and Ireland. Henry

John Cromwell was an American actor and director of stage and screen who, during a career that spanned more than 70 years, directed a number of classic movies, including Of Human Bondage (1934), Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1940), and Anna and the King of Siam (1946). (Read Martin Scorsese’s Britannica

Oliver Cromwell was an English soldier and statesman, who led parliamentary forces in the English Civil Wars and was lord protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1653–58) during the republican Commonwealth. As one of the generals on the parliamentary side in the English Civil War against King

Richard Cromwell was the lord protector of England from September 1658 to May 1659. The eldest surviving son of Oliver Cromwell and Elizabeth Bourchier, Richard failed in his attempt to carry on his father’s role as leader of the Commonwealth. He served in the Parliamentary army in 1647 and 1648

Thomas Cromwell was the principal adviser (1532–40) to England’s Henry VIII, chiefly responsible for establishing the Reformation in England, for the dissolution of the monasteries, and for strengthening the royal administration. At the instigation of his enemies, he was eventually arrested for

Henry VIII: …court, Wolsey encourages his servant Thomas Cromwell to offer his services to Henry, who soon promotes Cromwell to high office. Anne is married to Henry in secret and with great pomp is crowned queen. Although Katharine maintains her dignity throughout her divorce trial and subsequent exile from court, her goodness…

Thomas Cromwell was the principal adviser (1532–40) to England’s Henry VIII, chiefly responsible for establishing the Reformation in England, for the dissolution of the monasteries, and for strengthening the royal administration. At the instigation of his enemies, he was eventually arrested for

Cromwellian chair, sturdy, squarish chair with a leather back and seat, studded with brass-headed nails, made in England and in urban centres of colonial America in the mid-17th century. They were popular during the Puritan period and were named after Oliver Cromwell. Because luxury and almost any

Vasco Pratolini: Cronaca familiare (1947; Two Brothers) is a tender story of Pratolini’s dead brother. Cronache di poveri amanti (1947; A Tale of Poor Lovers), which has been called one of the finest works of Italian Neorealism, became an immediate best-seller and won two international literary prizes. The novel gives…

Il Cronaca was an Italian Renaissance architect whose sober style emphasizes planes and linear design. He was not related to Antonio and Piero Pollaiuolo. According to Vasari, it was his accurate accounts of the marvels of Rome, where he studied, that earned him the nickname of “Il Cronaca” (“The

Vasco Pratolini: Cronache di poveri amanti (1947; A Tale of Poor Lovers), which has been called one of the finest works of Italian Neorealism, became an immediate best-seller and won two international literary prizes. The novel gives a panoramic view of the Florentine poor at the time of the Fascist triumph in…

blister rust: …rust fungi of the genus Cronartium. Blister rust is found nearly worldwide and affects pines of all ages and sizes, including economically important timber trees. The disease can be lethal, and surviving trees are left vulnerable to destructive bark beetles. White pine blister rust, caused by C. ribicola, is a…

ribes: Physical description: …alternative hosts of the destructive blister rust fungus, which also attacks white pines, there are local prohibitions to growing Ribes near any white pine plantations.

human intelligence: Cognitive theories: …in 1957, the American researcher Lee Cronbach, a leader in the testing field, decried the lack of common ground between psychologists who studied individual differences and those who studied commonalities in human behaviour. Cronbach’s plea to unite the “two disciplines of scientific psychology” led, in part, to the development of…

David Cronenberg is a Canadian film director, screenwriter, and actor, best known for movies that employed elements of horror and science fiction to vividly explore the disturbing intersections between technology, the human body, and subconscious desire. Cronenberg graduated from the University of

Salimbene Di Adam: …Franciscan friar and historian whose Cronica is an important source for the history of Italy and, to a lesser extent, France, in the 13th century.

art criticism: Renaissance art criticism: …evaluation of this kind was Cronica (1308–64; “Chronicles”) compiled by brothers Giovanni, Matteo, and Filippo Villani. In Filippo Villani’s portion (1364) of the family’s ongoing work, he celebrates his native city, Florence, as the climax of civilization. Villani discusses the lives of famous men, including some artists. His writing set…

Ramón José Sender: Crónica del alba (1966; Before Noon), a series of nine novels published over more than two decades, explores the relationship between social and individual needs. In Las criaturas saturnianas (1968; “The Saturnian Creatures”) and other works Sender explores mythological and mystical subjects.

Dino Compagni: The Cronica delle cose occorrenti ne’ tempi suoi (“Chronicle of Contemporary Events”) is characterized by moral, ethical, and religious fervour; its historical accuracy has been established by later research, and it remains the most dependable document for that period. Its full portrayal of events, personalities, and…

João de Barros: His chivalrous romance Crónica do Imperador Clarimundo (1520) induced King Manuel I of Portugal to encourage Barros in his idea of writing an epic history of the Portuguese in Asia. But first he wrote several moral, pedagogical, and grammatical works, including Rópica pnefma (1532; “Spiritual Merchandise”), the most…

Spanish literature: The beginnings of prose: The Crónica general, a history of Spain, and the General estoria, an attempted universal history from the Creation onward, were foundational works of Spanish historiography. The Crónica general, overseen by Alfonso to ad 711 and completed by his son Sancho IV, was Spain’s most influential medieval…

Carlos Drummond de Andrade: …a poet, journalist, author of crônicas (a short fiction–essay genre widely cultivated in Brazil), and literary critic. He is considered one of the most accomplished poets of modern Brazil and a major influence on mid-20th-century Brazilian poetry. His experiments with poetic form (including laying the foundation of what later developed…

Pedro López de Ayala: His Crónicas (standard ed., 1779–80) are marked by this personal observation and vivid expression, making them among the first great Spanish histories.

Carlos Drummond de Andrade: …a poet, journalist, author of crônicas (a short fiction–essay genre widely cultivated in Brazil), and literary critic. He is considered one of the most accomplished poets of modern Brazil and a major influence on mid-20th-century Brazilian poetry. His experiments with poetic form (including laying the foundation of what later developed…

A.J. Cronin was a Scottish novelist and physician whose works combining realism with social criticism won a large Anglo-American readership. Cronin was educated at the University of Glasgow and served as a surgeon in the Royal Navy during World War I. He practiced in South Wales (1921–24) and then,

A.J. Cronin was a Scottish novelist and physician whose works combining realism with social criticism won a large Anglo-American readership. Cronin was educated at the University of Glasgow and served as a surgeon in the Royal Navy during World War I. He practiced in South Wales (1921–24) and then,

James Watson Cronin was an American particle physicist, corecipient with Val Logsdon Fitch of the 1980 Nobel Prize for Physics for an experiment that implied that reversing the direction of time would not precisely reverse the course of certain reactions of subatomic particles. Cronin graduated

silicone breast implant: The first silicone breast implants: …plastic surgeons Frank Gerow and Thomas Cronin, who used as source material a supply of silicone donated by the U.S.-based company Dow Corning (a conglomerate of Dow Chemical Company and Corning, Inc.). The original design of the silicone breast implant underwent a series of refinements in the 1960s and ’70s.…

Pieter Arnoldus Cronjé was a Boer general who played a prominent part in the early stages of the South African War. Cronjé was born in the Cape Colony but was taken in early life to the Transvaal, during the Great Trek. In the Transvaal, in November 1880, he began a rebellion against British rule,

Walter Cronkite was an American journalist and pioneer of television news programming who became known as “the most trusted man in America.” He was the longtime anchor of the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite (1962–81), for which he reported on many of the most historic events of the latter

Walter Cronkite was an American journalist and pioneer of television news programming who became known as “the most trusted man in America.” He was the longtime anchor of the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite (1962–81), for which he reported on many of the most historic events of the latter

American frontier: Significance of the frontier: Cronon saw the availability of “free land” as facilitating the development of a national psyche based on exploiting natural resources without regard for consequences. The New Western Historians argued for the study of the West as a region and grounded their approach in environmental history…

Julio Cortázar: …cronopios y de famas (1962; Cronopios and Famas). His later collections of short stories included Todos los fuegos el fuego (1966; All Fires the Fire, and Other Stories), Un tal Lucas (1979; A Certain Lucas), and Queremos tanto a Glenda, y otros relatos (1981; We Love Glenda So Much, and…

Guillermo del Toro: …helming his debut feature film, Cronos (1993). The movie, about the effects of a device that confers immortality, won nine Ariel Awards from the Mexican Academy of Film—including best picture, best director, best screenplay, and best original story—and also received the International Critics’ Week grand prize at the Cannes film…

Cronus, in ancient Greek religion, male deity who was worshipped by the pre-Hellenic population of Greece but probably was not widely worshipped by the Greeks themselves; he was later identified with the Roman god Saturn. Cronus’s functions were connected with agriculture; in Attica his festival,

Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was a Swedish mineralogist and chemist noted for his work on the chemistry of metallic elements and for his efforts to establish a new mineralogical system. He is also credited with developing an experimental procedure involving the systematic use of blowpipes for analyzing

Cronus, in ancient Greek religion, male deity who was worshipped by the pre-Hellenic population of Greece but probably was not widely worshipped by the Greeks themselves; he was later identified with the Roman god Saturn. Cronus’s functions were connected with agriculture; in Attica his festival,

Hume Cronyn was a Canadian-born actor who earned acclaim for his convincing portrayals of diverse characters and was especially noted for his acting partnership with Jessica Tandy, his wife. They became known as the “first couple of the American theatre.” Cronyn grew up in wealthy circumstances,

Hume Cronyn was a Canadian-born actor who earned acclaim for his convincing portrayals of diverse characters and was especially noted for his acting partnership with Jessica Tandy, his wife. They became known as the “first couple of the American theatre.” Cronyn grew up in wealthy circumstances,

Nicolas Cage: …Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Croods: A New Age (2020).

Nicolas Cage: …to such animated films as The Croods (2013), Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Croods: A New Age (2020).

Nicolas Cage: …Into the Spider-Verse (2018), and The Croods: A New Age (2020).

crook, in brass musical instruments, detachable piece of metal tubing inserted between the mouthpiece and the main tubing or in the middle of the tubing to lengthen the air column produced. This manipulation allows the player to obtain notes not included in the harmonic series of the original air

Colson Whitehead: …followed up in 2023 with Crook Manifesto, which recounts Carney’s Harlem adventures in the 1970s.

George Crook was an American army officer in the American Civil War and in the Indian conflicts of the West. General William Tecumseh Sherman called him the best of the Indian fighters and managers. An Ohio farm boy, Crook attended West Point (1848–52), graduating near the bottom of his class. He

The Office: Premise and characters: …sales representative; Gareth Keenan (Mackenzie Crook), a humorless, self-important assistant regional manager and team leader; and Chris Finch (Ralph Ineson), a lecherous and bullying sales representative whom Brent unwisely considers to be a friend. The camera frequently catches Tim and Dawn in the act of flirting, even though Dawn…

Glenn Close: …film credits from 2017 included Crooked House, an adaptation of an Agatha Christie mystery; the comedy Father Figures; and The Wife, for which she earned rave reviews—as well as an Oscar nomination and a Golden Globe Award—playing the supportive but reserved spouse of an acclaimed author. In 2020 Close starred…

Pavement: …Malkmus to resist, and 1994’s Crooked Rain, Crooked Rain sniped at groups such as the Smashing Pumpkins and the Stone Temple Pilots, while also slicking up the pop enough to get Pavement some MTV exposure with the “Cut Your Hair” music video. But instead of further pursuing what Malkmus called…

Sir William Crookes: …the cathode, now called the Crookes dark space. He demonstrated that cathode rays travel in straight lines and produce phosphorescence and heat when they strike certain materials. He invented many devices to study the behaviour of cathode rays, but his theory of radiant matter, or a fourth state of matter,…

gas: Free-molecule gas: A radiometer is a four-vaned mill that depends essentially on free-molecule effects. A temperature difference in the free-molecule gas causes a thermomolecular pressure difference that drives the vanes. The radiometer will stop spinning if enough air leaks into its glass envelope. (It will also stop spinning…

Sir William Crookes was a British chemist and physicist noted for his discovery of the element thallium and for his cathode-ray studies, fundamental in the development of atomic physics. After studying at the Royal College of Chemistry, London, Crookes became superintendent of the meteorological

History of film: United States: His many other films included Crooklyn (1994), Summer of Sam (1999), BlacKkKlansman (2018), and Da 5 Bloods (2020), along with documentaries such as 4 Little Girls (1997), concerning the deaths of four young Black girls in the bombing of a Birmingham, Alabama, church in 1963, and When the Levees Broke…

Tupac Shakur was an influential American rapper and actor who was one of the leading names in 1990s gangsta rap. With his raw talent and thoughtful lyrics, he frequently addressed social issues in his songs and became an enduring symbol of artistic expression in hip-hop culture. Lesane Crooks was

Crookston, city, seat (1873) of Polk county, northwestern Minnesota, U.S. It lies on Red Lake River, about 25 miles (40 km) southeast of Grand Forks, North Dakota. Sioux and Ojibwa Indians were early inhabitants of the area. Settled in 1872, the city is named for Colonel William Crooks, chief

hurdling: Further refinements were made by A.C.M. Croome of Oxford University about 1885, when he went over the hurdle with one leg extended straight ahead at the same time giving a forward lunge of the trunk, the basis of modern hurdling technique.

Lloyd Bacon: Warner Brothers: …and Chic Johnson comedies, to Crooner (1932), a dissection of the rise and fall of a radio star (David Manners) whose hubris is the instrument of his destruction.

crop, in agriculture, a plant or plant product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. By use, crops fall into six categories: food crops, for human consumption (e.g., wheat, potatoes); feed crops, for livestock consumption (e.g., oats, alfalfa); fibre crops, for

esophagus: …the stomach forms a thin-walled crop, which is the bird’s principal organ for the temporary storage of food. Some birds use the crop to carry food to their young. Ruminant mammals, such as the cow, are often said to have four “stomachs.” Actually, the first three of these chambers (rumen,…

crop circle, large geometric pattern of flattened crops, most often found in fields in southern England. Crop circles are said by some who have studied them to be messages from intelligent extraterrestrial life, but many have been proved to be the work of humans. Beginning in the late 1970s, simple

agricultural technology: Crop-processing machinery: …the most common method of crop drying, the crop, usually grain, is spread on floors or mats and stirred frequently while exposed to the sun. Such systems, though extremely common in the underdeveloped countries, are very slow and dependent on the weather. Forced-air-drying systems allow the farmer much more freedom…

crop duster, usually, an aircraft used for dusting or spraying large acreages with pesticides, though other types of dusters are also employed. Aerial spraying and dusting permit prompt coverage of large areas at the moment when application of pesticide is most effective and avoid the need for

Africa: Agriculture of Africa: …a lack of integration between crop production and animal husbandry. Traditionally, sedentary cultivators like the Hausa in Nigeria and the Kikuyu in Kenya live apart from their nomadic herdsmen neighbours (the Fulani and Maasai, respectively), with the result that over large areas of the continent farmers do not have access…

pigeon: …parents feed their young “pigeon’s milk,” the sloughed-off lining of the crop, the production of which is stimulated by the hormone prolactin. The nestling obtains this “milk” by poking its bill down the parent’s throat.

Barbados: Cultural life: …the country’s cultural traditions is Crop Over, an annual multi-week summer festival that has its historical origins in sugarcane harvest celebrations. The harvest celebrations died out in the mid-20th century, but Crop Over was reborn in the 1970s as a festival of musical (notably calypso), culinary, and other arts. Crop…

Africa: Agriculture of Africa: …a lack of integration between crop production and animal husbandry. Traditionally, sedentary cultivators like the Hausa in Nigeria and the Kikuyu in Kenya live apart from their nomadic herdsmen neighbours (the Fulani and Maasai, respectively), with the result that over large areas of the continent farmers do not have access…

crop rotation, the successive cultivation of different crops in a specified order on the same fields, in contrast to a one-crop system or to haphazard crop successions. Throughout human history, wherever food crops have been produced, some kind of rotation cropping appears to have been practiced.

Svalbard Global Seed Vault: …Norway in coordination with the Global Crop Diversity Trust. It was designed as a comprehensive storage facility that could protect the genetic diversity of humanity’s food crops from the threat of a global catastrophe, such as nuclear war, and to safeguard genetic resources that could be used to breed new…

two-field system, basis of agricultural organization in Europe and the Middle East in early times. Arable land was divided into two fields or groups of fields; one group was planted to wheat, barley, or rye, while the other was allowed to lie fallow until the next planting season to recover its

grassland: Biological productivity: …frequently have been converted to cropland on which edible grains are grown; this allows food for humans to be taken directly from the grasslands themselves rather than via grazing animals feeding on the native grasses in a rangeland situation. The increase in yields is substantial. According to figures compiled for…

Wilson Pickett: …with Otis Redding’s collaborator, guitarist Steve Cropper of Booker T. and the MG’s. The result was a smash single, “In the Midnight Hour” (1965). From that moment on, Pickett was a star. With his dazzling good looks and confident demeanour, he stood as a leading exponent of the Southern-fried school…

origins of agriculture: Cropping systems: Olive groves and vineyards were permanent; grain and pulses were annuals. Although it was realized that different soils were better suited to some crops than to others, the same piece of land was used for all crops. A specific crop, however, was grown…

Jasper Francis Cropsey was an American painter and architect associated with the second generation of the Hudson River school of artists. He was known for his autumnal landscapes of the American Northeast. Cropsey was born the first of eight children and was raised on a farm by devout Christian

Jasper Francis Cropsey was an American painter and architect associated with the second generation of the Hudson River school of artists. He was known for his autumnal landscapes of the American Northeast. Cropsey was born the first of eight children and was raised on a farm by devout Christian

croquet, popular outdoor game, played on a lawn or court, with long-handled mallets with which the players hit balls through a series of wickets, or hoops. The game evolved from paille-maille (French: “pall-mall”), which was played in France at least as early as the 13th century and introduced into

association croquet: …tournaments are governed by the Croquet Association, founded in 1896, which sponsors the open championships; the men’s, women’s, and mixed-doubles championships; and invitational events, including the President’s Cup. Separate governing bodies for croquet also exist in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In the 1970s, interest in association croquet arose…

Roland Petit: …circus performers; the imaginative creation La Croqueuse de diamants (1950; “The Diamond Cruncher”), whose heroine eats the gems her associates steal; and L’Oeuf à la coque (1949; “The Soft-Boiled Egg”), in which the leading female dancer hatches from an egg in hell. Carmen (1949) was one of Petit’s most popular…

sketch: The first—sometimes known as a croquis—is intended to remind the artist of some scene or event he has seen and wishes to record in a more permanent form. The second—a pochade—is one in which he records, usually in colour, the atmospheric effects and general impressions of a landscape. The third…

Daniel Maclise was an Irish historical painter whose fame rests chiefly on a series of lithograph portraits of contemporary celebrities and on two vast frescoes that he painted in the Royal Gallery in the House of Lords. At the age of 16 he left the employ of a local bank to enter the Cork school

Charles Cros was a French inventor and poet who alternated the writing of avant-garde poetry with theoretical work in photography and sound recording. In 1860 Cros began studies in medicine, but he soon abandoned them for a life of literary and scientific pursuits. In 1869 he published a theory of

Charles Cros was a French inventor and poet who alternated the writing of avant-garde poetry with theoretical work in photography and sound recording. In 1860 Cros began studies in medicine, but he soon abandoned them for a life of literary and scientific pursuits. In 1869 he published a theory of

Celtic literature: Bardic verse: …from praise poetry was the crosánacht (from the Irish word crosán, meaning a jester or satirist), in which verse was frequently interspersed with humorous or satirical prose passages.

Columbian Exchange: …taken from the title of Alfred W. Crosby’s 1972 book, which divided the exchange into three categories: diseases, animals, and plants.

Bing Crosby was an American singer, actor, and songwriter who achieved great popularity in radio, recordings, and motion pictures. He became the archetypal crooner of a period when the advent of radio broadcasting and talking pictures and the refinement of sound-recording techniques made the

Harry Crosby: …1927 he and his wife, Caresse Crosby, née Jacob (1892–1970), began to publish their own poetry under the imprint Editions Narcisse, later the Black Sun Press. The following year they started printing books by other writers, such as Archibald MacLeish, D.H. Lawrence, and James Joyce, for which the press is…

the Byrds: …24, 1991, Sherman Oaks, California), David Crosby (original name David Van Cortland; b. August 14, 1941, Los Angeles, California—January 18, 2023), Chris Hillman (b. December 4, 1942, Los Angeles), Michael Clarke (b. June 3, 1944, New York, New York—d. December. 19, 1993, Treasure Island, Florida), Gram Parsons (original name Ingram…

Fanny Crosby was an American writer of hymns, the best known of which was “Safe in the Arms of Jesus.” Fanny was the only child of widower John Crosby and his second wife, Mercy Crosby, and had a half sister from her father’s first marriage. According to her autobiography, she lost her sight to an

Fanny Crosby was an American writer of hymns, the best known of which was “Safe in the Arms of Jesus.” Fanny was the only child of widower John Crosby and his second wife, Mercy Crosby, and had a half sister from her father’s first marriage. According to her autobiography, she lost her sight to an

Harry Crosby was an American poet who, as an expatriate in Paris in the 1920s, established the Black Sun Press. Crosby was known for his bizarre behaviour. After barely escaping death in World War I, he became morbid and rebellious. His courtship of a married woman shocked society; rejecting

Bing Crosby was an American singer, actor, and songwriter who achieved great popularity in radio, recordings, and motion pictures. He became the archetypal crooner of a period when the advent of radio broadcasting and talking pictures and the refinement of sound-recording techniques made the

Harry Crosby was an American poet who, as an expatriate in Paris in the 1920s, established the Black Sun Press. Crosby was known for his bizarre behaviour. After barely escaping death in World War I, he became morbid and rebellious. His courtship of a married woman shocked society; rejecting

Sidney Crosby is a Canadian ice hockey player who in 2007 became the youngest captain of a National Hockey League (NHL) team and who led the Pittsburgh Penguins to three Stanley Cup championships (2009, 2016, and 2017). Crosby, the son of a goaltender drafted by the Montreal Canadiens, was able to

Crosby, Stills & Nash, British-American trio—and, with Neil Young, quartet, as Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young—whose acoustic and electric folk rock songs became musical primers for hippies following Woodstock. The members were David Crosby (original name David Van Cortland; b. August 14, 1941, Los

Crosby, Stills & Nash, British-American trio—and, with Neil Young, quartet, as Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young—whose acoustic and electric folk rock songs became musical primers for hippies following Woodstock. The members were David Crosby (original name David Van Cortland; b. August 14, 1941, Los

crosier, staff with a curved top that is carried by bishops of the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and some European Lutheran churches and by abbots and abbesses as an insignia of their ecclesiastical office. Formerly, the crosier also signified the bishop’s temporal power. It is made of metal or carved

plant: Subclass Polypodiidae: …coiled in the bud (fiddleheads) and uncurl in a type of leaf development called circinate vernation. Fern leaves are either whole or variously divided. The leaf types are differentiated into rachis (axis of a compound leaf), pinnae (primary divisions), and pinnules (ultimate segments of a pinna). Fern leaves often…