chestnut: Species and uses: The Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima), usually less than 18 metres (about 60 feet) tall, grows at altitudes up to 2,440 metres (8,000 feet). The Japanese chestnut (C. crenata), a similar shrub or tree that may grow to 9 metres (30 feet) or more, is found at…

chinquapin: The American chinquapin, also known as dwarf chestnut (Castanea pumila), is found throughout much of the eastern and southern United States, though populations have declined because of infection by chestnut blight, a fungal disease. It ranges in size from a small shrub to a tree up…

chestnut: Species and uses: The European chestnut (C. sativa), 30 metres (100 feet) tall, is native to Eurasia and northern Africa; it is often called sweet, Spanish, or Eurasian chestnut. The Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima), usually less than 18 metres (about 60 feet) tall, grows at altitudes up to 2,440…

Carlos Castaneda was a Peruvian-born anthropologist and writer who was considered a father of the New Age movement for his series of books based on the mystical secrets of a Yaqui Indian shaman. Though many critics came to believe that the works were more fiction than fact, they became

castanets, percussion instrument of the clapper family, consisting of two hollowed-out pear-shaped pieces of hardwood, ivory, or other substance hinged together by a cord. Castanets are usually held in the hand and struck together. They are played in differently pitched pairs by dancers primarily

Brazil nut, (Bertholletia excelsa), edible seed of a large South American tree (family Lecythidaceae) found in the Amazonian forests of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. The Brazil nut is particularly well known in the Brazilian state of Pará, where it is called castanha-do-pará (Pará nut) and

chinquapin: …and shrubs of the genus Castanopsis and Chrysolepis.

chinquapin: …or giant, evergreen chinquapin (Chrysolepis chrysophylla), is native to western North America. It may be 45 metres (148 feet) tall and has lance-shaped leaves about 15 cm (6 inches) long, coated beneath with golden-yellow scales. The bush, or Sierra evergreen, chinquapin (Chrysolepis sempervirens) is a small spreading mountain shrub…

chinquapin: …or giant, evergreen chinquapin (Chrysolepis chrysophylla), is native to western North America. It may be 45 metres (148 feet) tall and has lance-shaped leaves about 15 cm (6 inches) long, coated beneath with golden-yellow scales. The bush, or Sierra evergreen, chinquapin (Chrysolepis sempervirens) is a small spreading mountain shrub…

chinquapin: …or Sierra evergreen, chinquapin (Chrysolepis sempervirens) is a small spreading mountain shrub of western North America and was also formerly of the genus Castanopsis.

race: The colonial period: …socio-racial classes, known as a sociedad de castas (“society of castes, or breeds”). Portuguese colonists were less pedantic about this.

Derek Walcott: …verse in Selected Poems (1964), The Castaway (1965), and The Gulf (1969) is similarly lush in style and incantatory in mood as Walcott expresses his feelings of personal isolation, caught between his European cultural orientation and the black folk cultures of his native Caribbean. Another Life (1973) is a book-length…

English literature: Poets and poetry after Pope: …his masterly short poem “The Castaway” (written 1799). His most extended achievement is The Task (1785), an extraordinary fusion of disparate interests, working calmly toward religious praise and pious acceptance.

The Decemberists: Their first album, however, Castaways and Cutouts (2002), featured the baroque instrumentation and narrative song structures (as well as Meloy’s idiosyncratically nasal voice) that would become the band’s hallmarks.

caste, any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India. Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the “caste system” is uniquely

caste, in biology, a subset of individuals within a colony (society) of social animals that is specialized in the function it performs and distinguished by anatomical or morphological differences from other subsets. Social insects such as ants, bees, termites, and wasps are the main species known

Sir Squire Bancroft: …among them Society (1865) and Caste (1867). These productions swept away the old crude methods of writing and staging. Later they produced new plays and revivals, such as Bulwer-Lytton’s Money, Dion Boucicault’s London Assurance, and an adaptation of Sardou’s Dora entitled Diplomacy. In 1880 they moved to the Haymarket Theatre…

panchayat, the most important adjudicating and licensing agency in the self-government of an Indian caste. There are two types: permanent and impermanent. Literally, a panchayat (from Sanskrit pañca, “five”) consists of five members, but usually there are more; the panchayat has a policy committee,

Latin American art: Latin American themes: …documented set of so-called “caste paintings,” which used 16 different scenes to show the effects of the intermarriages of indigenous people, enslaved Africans, and Europeans. This genre gained popularity on the eve of independence, when the different strata of colonial society were depicted in several series called castas created…

caste, any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India. Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the “caste system” is uniquely

Belize: Early history: The Caste War, an indigenous uprising in the Yucatán that began in 1847, resulted in several thousand Spanish-speaking refugees’ settling in northern Belize, while Mayan communities were reestablished in the north and west. These immigrants introduced a variety of agricultural developments, including traditional subsistence farming and…

Mary Hayden Green Pike: , Pike published Caste: A Story of Republican Equality, which tells of a mixed race girl forbidden to marry a white man. It received much favorable critical comment. Agnes (1858), her last book, concerns a North American protagonist in the time of the Revolution. Pike also contributed to…

Isabel Wilkerson: The Warmth of Other Suns and Caste: Titled Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, her second book was published in 2020 as a commentary on social hierarchies in the United States that she described as a caste system. Wilkerson argued that racism is not an adequate word to describe the deeply entrenched inequities…

floral decoration: 18th century: …designed by the Flemish artist Peter Casteels for a nursery catalog called The Twelve Months of Flowers (1730). Since the flowers in each bouquet are numbered and keyed to a list at the bottom of the plate, and are one-of-a-kind collections, they are not truly representative of live arrangements. Jacob…

Insubres: …their defeat at Clastidium (modern Casteggio) by Roman forces in 222 bc, they continued to be troublesome and aided the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218–201 bc). The Insubres were finally subdued in 196 bc and gradually lost their identity in the rise of municipal communities. They…

pottery: Majolica: Castel Durante adopted the same style, and it is particularly associated with the name of Nicola Pellipario, the greatest of the majolica painters. He also painted grotesques similar to those of Deruta, in Umbria, which are rather more stylized than the grotesques introduced later in…

Castel Gandolfo, village and castle, Rome provincia, Lazio regione, central Italy. It lies on the edge of Lake Albano, in the Alban Hills just south of Rome. Its palace is notable as the summer residence of the popes. Castel Gandolfo probably occupies the site of ancient Alba Longa. Its name is

Castel Gandolfo: …of the Apostolic, or Papal, Palace, the summer residence of the pontiff. The vast palace was begun by Urban VIII (pope from 1623 to 1644) and later enlarged by Alexander VII, Clement XIII, and Pius IX. With its magnificent terraced park and the former Villa Barberini, built on the ruins…

San Gimignano, town, west-central Toscana (Tuscany) regione (region), central Italy. It lies about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Siena. Originally called “City of Silva,” it later took its name from the Bishop of Modena (d. 397), who liberated the town from a barbarian invasion. An independent

Castel Sant’Angelo, structure in Rome, Italy, that was originally the mausoleum of the Roman emperor Hadrian and became the burial place of the Antonine emperors until Caracalla. It was built in ad 135–139 and converted into a fortress in the 5th century. It stands on the right bank of the Tiber

Charles-Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre was an influential French publicist and reformist, one of the first modern European writers to propose an international organization for maintaining peace. In 1693 Saint-Pierre gained a footing at court as almoner to the Duchess d’Orléans, who presented

Simaroubaceae: The crucifixion thorn (Castela emoryi) is native to the deserts of the southwestern United States.

Emilio Castelar y Ripoll was a statesman and author, one of the most powerful champions of Spanish republicanism in the latter half of the 19th century. He was president of the first Spanish Republic from September 1873 to January 1874. Castelar studied at the University of Madrid, where he became

Castelfranco Veneto, town, Veneto regione, northern Italy. It lies west of Treviso. Founded in 1199 by Treviso city as a bulwark against the Paduans, it is surrounded by medieval walls enclosing the remains of the 12th-century castle. The town was the birthplace of the painter Zorzi da

Giorgione was an extremely influential Italian painter who was one of the initiators of a High Renaissance style in Venetian art. His qualities of mood and mystery were epitomized in The Tempest (c. 1505), an evocative pastoral scene, which was among the first of its genre in Venetian painting.

morality play: …plays surviving in English is The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1425), about the battle for the soul of Humanum Genus. A plan for the staging of one performance has survived that depicts an outdoor theatre-in-the-round with the castle of the title at the centre. Of all morality plays, the one…

Llangollen: …(a remarkable 9th-century stone cross), Castell-Dinas-Bran (a 13th-century Welsh prince’s stronghold gateway), and a 14th-century bridge across the Dee. Pop. (2001) 3,412; (2011) 3,658.

Neath, town and urban area (from 2011 built-up area), Neath Port Talbot county borough, historic county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg), southern Wales. It is situated on the River Neath (Nedd), about 6 miles (10 km) upstream from Swansea Bay of the Bristol Channel. About 75 ce the Romans chose the site

Neath Port Talbot, county borough, southern Wales. Encompassing the Swansea Bay coast from the Kenfig Burrows in the south to the eastern outskirts of Swansea in the north, it extends inland across an area of wooded hills that form a sandstone plateau crossed by the broad valleys of the Rivers

Castellammare di Stabia, city and episcopal see, Campania regione, southern Italy. It lies in the southeast angle of the Bay of Naples southeast of Naples. Its name is derived from the Roman resort of Stabiae (just northeast), destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in ad 79, and from a castle built

Castellammarese War, conflict between the Castellammarese and Masseria organized crime families in New York City from 1930 to 1931 that ultimately led to the reorganization of the Mafia. The Castellammarese family was led by Salvatore Maranzano, who was born in the Sicilian town of Castellammare

France: French society in the early Middle Ages: …the masters of castles (castellans), who by the year 1000 were claiming the power to command and punish as well as the right to retain the revenues generated from the exercise of such power. In this way was completed a devolution of power from the undivided empire of the…

France: French society in the early Middle Ages: …the masters of castles (castellans), who by the year 1000 were claiming the power to command and punish as well as the right to retain the revenues generated from the exercise of such power. In this way was completed a devolution of power from the undivided empire of the…

Castilian dialect, a dialect of the Spanish language (q.v.), the basis of modern standard Spanish. Originally the local dialect of Cantabria in north central Spain, Castilian spread to Castile. After the merger of the kingdoms of Castile, Leon, and Aragon in the late 15th century, it became the

Paul Castellano was an American organized crime figure, the reputed successor to Carlo Gambino as the “boss of bosses” of the Five Families of La Cosa Nostra, sometimes referred to as the Mafia, in New York City. Castellano held power from 1976 until 1985, when he was murdered. Castellano’s parents

Paul Castellano was an American organized crime figure, the reputed successor to Carlo Gambino as the “boss of bosses” of the Five Families of La Cosa Nostra, sometimes referred to as the Mafia, in New York City. Castellano held power from 1976 until 1985, when he was murdered. Castellano’s parents

Paul Castellano was an American organized crime figure, the reputed successor to Carlo Gambino as the “boss of bosses” of the Five Families of La Cosa Nostra, sometimes referred to as the Mafia, in New York City. Castellano held power from 1976 until 1985, when he was murdered. Castellano’s parents

Rosario Castellanos was a novelist, short-story writer, poet, essayist, and diplomat who was probably the most important Mexican woman writer of the 20th century. Her 1950 master’s thesis, Sobre cultura femenina (“On Feminine Culture”), became a turning point for modern Mexican women writers, who

nut: …Figure, including the slotted or castellated nut; when this nut is tightened on the bolt, the slots are aligned with a hole in the bolt and locked in place by a cotter pin or wire lacing to prevent loosening or unscrewing. Locking can also be accomplished by tightening a thin…

pottery: Majolica: …the later potteries, that of Castelli, near Naples, did excellent work from the 16th century onward, although its later wares tend to become pedestrian. Istoriato painting was revived there in the 17th century in a palette paler in tone than that of early work in this style. Much majolica survives…

Francesco Borromini was an Italian architect who was a chief formulator of Baroque architectural style. Borromini (he changed his name from Castelli about 1627) secured a reputation throughout Europe with his striking design for a small church, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome. He differed

Leo Castelli was an art dealer of Hungarian and Italian descent whose promotion of American painters helped contemporary American art gain acceptance in Europe. Castelli was brought up in an affluent Jewish family in Trieste. During World War I the family moved to Vienna. After the war they moved

Unitarianism and Universalism: Servetus and Socinus: …for heresy in 1553 led Sebastian Castellio, a liberal humanist, to advocate religious toleration in De haereticis… (1554; Concerning Heretics”) and caused some Italian religious exiles, who were then in Switzerland, to move to Poland.

Unitarianism and Universalism: Servetus and Socinus: …for heresy in 1553 led Sebastian Castellio, a liberal humanist, to advocate religious toleration in De haereticis… (1554; Concerning Heretics”) and caused some Italian religious exiles, who were then in Switzerland, to move to Poland.

Castellón de la Plana, city, capital of Castellón provincia (province) in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Valencia, eastern Spain. Castellón de la Plana is situated north of Valencia city on a fertile plain near the Mediterranean coast. Founded originally on top of nearby La

The Castle of Crossed Destinies, semiotic fantasy novel by Italo Calvino, published in Italian in 1973 as Il castello dei destini incrociati. It consists of a series of short tales gathered into two sections, “The Castle of Crossed Destinies” and “The Tavern of Crossed Destinies.” The novel

Trento: …Maria Maggiore (1520), and the Castello del Buon Consiglio. The latter, dating from the 13th century, served as the seat of the prince-bishops from the 15th century; in 1528–36 a palace and splendid Renaissance courtyard were added to the castle, which is now a national museum.

Sforzesco Castle, in Milan, castle built in the 15th century by Francesco Sforza and now home of a fine art collection. Collections of the Castello Sforzesco include those of the Museum of Antique Art, of the Museum of Musical Instruments, and of the Picture Gallery. The “Rondanini Pietà,”

Catania: The Ursino Castle with its four angular towers, constructed (1239–50) for Frederick II, long served as a model of military architecture. It now houses the civic museum with rich collections of art and archaeological relics.

Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus: Beginnings: Castello, Coup, and Barnum: …Circus had its roots in Dan Castello’s Great Circus & Egyptian Caravan, which was founded in Delavan, Wisconsin, in 1867 by two veteran circus men, Dan Castello and William Cameron Coup. Featuring eight camels that had belonged to the U.S. Army’s experimental Camel Corps, Castello and Coup’s circus toured the…

concerto: Origins of the concerto: …Modern Style), by an Italian, Dario Castello, a collection for a violin and for a bassoon that elaborates on the basso continuo part. (The basso continuo, a constant device of Baroque music, calls for a low, sustained-tone instrument—e.g., cello, viola da gamba, bassoon—playing the bass line, plus one or more…

Castellón, provincia (province) in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Valencia, eastern Spain, and northernmost of the three provinces corresponding to the ancient kingdom of Valencia. Castellón comprises three distinct regions: the inhospitable Maestrazgo in the mountainous

Castellón de la Plana, city, capital of Castellón provincia (province) in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Valencia, eastern Spain. Castellón de la Plana is situated north of Valencia city on a fertile plain near the Mediterranean coast. Founded originally on top of nearby La

urban culture: Definitions of the city and urban cultures: …Justice and the City, 1973), Manuel Castells (The Urban Question, 1977), and other scholars influenced by Marxism caused a major shift in the conception of urban cultural roles. Although they mainly worked on cities in advanced capitalist cultures, their approach had wide relevance. Rather than looking outward from the city…

Western architecture: Italy: …Luigi Vanvitelli; for example, the Castelluccio Reale (1774) in the park at Caserta, an octagonal structure with a round superstructure. Other barometers of the new taste were the Villa Albani, Rome (completed c. 1760), built by Carlo Marchionni to house a collection of ancient marbles formed by Alessandro Cardinal Albani;…

Grease: Summary: …Bee Gees and performed by Frankie Valli, lead singer of the Four Seasons. “Grease” expertly combines Valli’s doo-wop crooning with a funky 1970s beat, a nod to both the decade in which the movie is set and the decade in which it was produced. While the song plays, the animation…

Ech-Cheliff, town, northern Algeria. It lies along the Chelif River, south of the Mediterranean Sea port of Ténès. It was founded by the French in 1843 on the site of the ancient Roman settlement of Castellum Tingitanum and is now an important rail junction midway between Algiers and Oran, as well

Michel de Castelnau, sieur de la Mauvissière was a French diplomat and soldier, noted for his Mémoires of the beginnings of the Wars of Religion (1562–98). As a young man, Castelnau served under local commanders in Piedmont and in Picardy. After the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), he entered the

Podostemaceae: …Nepal, Assam, and southern Japan), Castelnavia (9 species, Brazil), Mourera (6 species, northern tropical South America), and Oserya (7 species, Mexico to northern tropical South America). A majority of the remaining 35 genera contain only one or two species each.

Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco was an Italian-born composer in the Neoromantic style. Castelnuovo-Tedesco studied under Ildebrando Pizzetti and became widely known during the 1920s. In 1939 Benito Mussolini’s anti-Semitic policies led him to emigrate to the United States, where he settled in Hollywood.

Castelo Branco, city and concelho (municipality), east-central Portugal. It is located about 10 miles (16 km) north of the Tagus (Tejo) River, where the river demarcates the border with Spain. The surrounding region was occupied by Roman legions and has many Roman ruins, but the city itself

Camilo Castelo Branco was a Portuguese novelist whose 58 novels range from Romantic melodramas to works of realism. He is sometimes known as the Portuguese Balzac. Born illegitimately into a family believed to have had a hereditary tendency to insanity, Camilo was orphaned in childhood and brought

Elmina Castle, fortified castle in Elmina, Ghana, that is thought to be the oldest surviving European building in Africa south of the Sahara. Built in 1482 by the Portuguese to protect the gold trade, Elmina Castle later became a major center of the transatlantic slave trade. The Portuguese had

Luiz de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 3o count de Castelo Melhor was a Portuguese royal favourite who, as effective governor of Portugal from 1662 to 1667 during the reign of Afonso VI, was responsible for the successful prosecution of the war against Spain, which led, in 1668, to Spanish recognition of

Luiz de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 3o count de Castelo Melhor was a Portuguese royal favourite who, as effective governor of Portugal from 1662 to 1667 during the reign of Afonso VI, was responsible for the successful prosecution of the war against Spain, which led, in 1668, to Spanish recognition of

Afonso VI: …the battles of Ameixal (1663), Castelo Rodrigo (1664), and Montes Claros (1665), which in 1668 led to Spanish recognition of Portuguese independence. When Afonso’s wife left him, their marriage was annulled on grounds of his incapacity. She married his brother, the future Peter II, who was declared Defender of the…

Kastellórizo, easternmost of the Dodecanese (Modern Greek: Dodekánisa) group of islands in the Aegean Sea, Greece, lying on the edge of the Aegean, where it meets the Levantine Sea, just off the southwestern coast of Turkey. Kastellórizo has an area of 3 square miles (7.3 square km). Its present

Bran Castle, medieval stronghold in the Transylvanian Alps (Southern Carpathian Mountains) of Brașov county, central Romania. Popularly—if inaccurately—identified with the fictional Castle Dracula, Bran Castle is one of Romania’s top tourist attractions. The first known fortress near Bran Pass (now

Castelvetrano, town, western Sicily, Italy, southeast of Marsala. Historic monuments include the churches of S. Domenico (1470) and of the Madre (16th century). In the town hall there is a 5th-century bronze statue of the Ephebus of Selinus (Selinonte). Castelvetrano serves a wine-producing region

Lodovico Castelvetro was a dominant literary critic of the Italian Renaissance, particularly noted for his translation of and independently rendered conclusions from Aristotle’s Poetics, in which he defended the dramatic unities of time, place, and action, as well as the use of poetry for pleasure

Christianity: The tendency toward asceticism: …the encyclical of Pius XI Casti Connubii (1930; “On Christian Marriage”) and in the encyclical of Paul VI Humanae Vitae (1968; “On Human Life”), completely rejected any kind of contraception, a position confirmed by Paul’s successors as pope in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Modern economic and population…

Giovanni Battista Casti was an Italian poet, satirist, and author of comic opera librettos, chiefly remembered for the verse satires Poema tartaro (1787; “Tartar Poem”) and Gli animali parlanti (1802, “The Talking Animals”; Eng. trans. The Court and Parliament of Beasts, 1819). Casti took holy

Provençal literature: Decline and fall: …Ramon Vidal de Besalú: the Castia-gilos was an elegant treatment of a story of the husband who disguises himself as his wife’s lover, and the other was a recital of a question of the law of love. Mention may also be made of Novas del Papagai by Arnaut de Carcassès,…

Christianity: Church and minorities: …of races under the term casticismo (purity of the Castilian heritage) in the American mission regions and sometimes restricted marriage between Castilian Spanish immigrants and native Christians. Like the Portuguese in Africa and Brazil, the French Catholic mission in Canada and in the regions around the Great Lakes in North…

Frank Costello was a major American syndicate gangster, a close associate of Lucky Luciano, noted for his influence with politicians. Arriving in New York City at the age of four with his immigrant Calabrian parents, Costello grew up in East Harlem and became head of the 104th Street Gang, a group

Baldassare Castiglione was an Italian courtier, diplomat, and writer best known for his dialogue Il libro del cortegiano (1528; The Book of the Courtier). The son of a noble family, Castiglione was educated at the humanist school of Giorgio Merula and Demetrius Chalcondyles, and at the court of

Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione was an Italian painter and one of the most important technical innovators in the history of printmaking. Beginning in the highly artificial style of Mannerism, Castiglione was a productive painter who left portraits (though very few survived from what had been a large

Chinese architecture: The Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12): …the Jesuit missionary and artist Giuseppe Castiglione (known in China as Lang Shining) designed for Qianlong a series of extraordinary Sino-Rococo buildings, set in Italianate gardens ornamented with mechanical fountains designed by the Jesuit priest Michel Benoist. Today the Yuanmingyuan has almost completely disappeared, as the foreign-style buildings were burned…

Virginia Oldoini Verasis, countess di Castiglione was a Tuscan noblewoman who occupied a predominant position in the courts of both Turin and Paris and influenced Franco-Italian political relations. Married in 1854 to Count Francesco Verasis di Castiglione, who was attached to the court of King

Pius VIII was an Italian pope from March 1829 to November 1830. Versed in canon law, he became vicar general at Anagni, and later at Fano, until 1800, when he was made bishop of Montalto by Pope Pius VII. He was imprisoned in 1808 during the French domination of Italy for refusing to take the oath

Celestine IV was the pope from October 25 to Nov. 10, 1241. The nephew of Pope Urban III, Celestine had been made cardinal priest of St. Mark’s in 1227 and cardinal bishop of Sabina in 1239 by his predecessor, Gregory IX, whom he was elected to succeed on Oct. 25, 1241. He was the first pope to be

Castile, traditional central region constituting more than one-quarter of the area of peninsular Spain. Castile’s northern part is called Old Castile and the southern part is called New Castile. The region formed the core of the Kingdom of Castile, under which Spain was united in the late 15th and

Reconquista: …between the Christian kingdoms of Castile and León in the 10th century.

Castile-León, comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) and historic region of northwestern Spain, encompassing the provincias (provinces) of Valladolid, Burgos, León, Salamanca, Zamora, Palencia, Ávila, Soria, and Segovia. Its capital is the city of Valladolid. Castile-León is bounded by the

geochronology: Accumulational processes: New Mexico’s Castile Formation, for example, consists of alternating layers of gypsum and calcite that may reflect an annual temperature cycle in the hypersaline water from which the minerals precipitated. In moist, temperate climates, lake sediments collecting in the summer are richer in organic matter than those…

Spain: Domestic reforms: …the councils persisted, with the Council of Castile as the ultimate decision-making body. An attempt to establish royal control of municipalities (without which reforms could not get past the oligarchic councils) was likewise only a partial success. Most of the public works that characterized the late 18th century were the…

Tagus River: …artificial lake known as the Sea of Castile, which covers an area of 51 square miles (132 square km).

Castile–La Mancha, comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) and historic region of Spain, encompassing the provincias (provinces) of Toledo, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Albacete. Castile–La Mancha is bounded by the autonomous communities of Madrid to the north, Aragon to the northeast,

Castile-León, comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) and historic region of northwestern Spain, encompassing the provincias (provinces) of Valladolid, Burgos, León, Salamanca, Zamora, Palencia, Ávila, Soria, and Segovia. Its capital is the city of Valladolid. Castile-León is bounded by the

António Feliciano de Castilho was a poet and translator, a central figure in the Portuguese Romantic movement. Although blind from childhood, he became a classical scholar and at the age of 16 published a series of poems, translations, and pedagogical works. Castilho’s literary life may be divided