Battle of Chaeronea, (August 338 bce), battle in Boeotia, central Greece, in which Philip II of Macedonia defeated a coalition of Greek city-states led by Thebes and Athens. The victory, partly credited to Philip’s 18-year-old son Alexander the Great, cemented the Macedonian hegemony in Greece and

baboon, (genus Papio), any of five species of large, robust, and primarily terrrestrial monkeys found in dry regions of Africa and Arabia. Males of the largest species, the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus), average 30 kg (66 pounds) or so, but females are only half this size. The smallest is the

bandicoot: The 35-cm- (14-inch-) long pig-footed bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus) of southern interior Australia had feet that were almost hooflike, with two toes functional on the forefoot, one on the hind foot. This herbivorous creature, resembling a little deer, is probably extinct; it was last observed locally in the 1920s.

foxtail: Foxtail millet (S. italica; see millet) is the only economically valuable species. Yellow foxtail (S. pumila) and green foxtail (S. viridis), named for the colour of their bristles, are common in cornfields and disturbed areas. Bristly foxtail (S. verticillata), whose barbed bristles stick to

mollusk: Annotated classification: Subclass Chaetodermomorpha (Caudofoveata) Worm-shaped; covered by cuticle and aragonitic scales; ventral gliding area reduced; mantle cavity terminal with 1 pair of ctenidia; midgut with ventrally separated sac; adapted to burrowing habits in mud; marine in 10–7,000 m; 2 mm to 14 cm; about 100 species in 3…

spadefish: The Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber) is a western Atlantic species that ranges from New England to Brazil. It feeds primarily on marine invertebrates, particularly crustaceans and ctenophores (comb jellies).

pocket mouse: Natural history: The 15 species of coarse-haired pocket mice (genus Chaetodipus) are larger on average, weighing 15 to 47 grams and having a body length of 8 to 13 cm and hairy, tufted tails as long as or much longer than the body (up to 15 cm). Coarse-haired pocket mice are…

butterflyfish: …12 genera, with the genus Chaetodon alone accounting for almost 90 species. Among them are the foureye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus), a common West Indian species with a white-ringed black ocellus near its tail; the spotfin butterflyfish (C. ocellatus), a western Atlantic species with yellow fins and a dark spot at…

butterflyfish: …ocellus near its tail; the spotfin butterflyfish (C. ocellatus), a western Atlantic species with yellow fins and a dark spot at the base of its dorsal fin; and the pennant coralfish, or feather-fin bull fish (Heniochus acuminatus), a black-and-white striped Indo-Pacific species with a very long spine in its dorsal…

butterflyfish, any of the approximately 115 species of small quick-moving marine fishes in the family Chaetodontidae (order Perciformes). Butterflyfishes are found among tropical reefs around the world but are concentrated in the Indo-Pacific oceanic region. Butterflyfishes are deep-bodied and thin

arrowworm, any member of a group of free-living wormlike marine carnivores that belong to the invertebrate phylum Chaetognatha. The bodies of arrowworms appear transparent to translucent or opaque and are arrow shaped. There are more than 120 species, most of which are in the genus Sagitta. The

arrowworm, any member of a group of free-living wormlike marine carnivores that belong to the invertebrate phylum Chaetognatha. The bodies of arrowworms appear transparent to translucent or opaque and are arrow shaped. There are more than 120 species, most of which are in the genus Sagitta. The

armadillo: Natural history: The peludos, or hairy armadillos (three species of genus Chaetophractus), make snarling sounds. The mulita (D. hybridus) repeatedly utters a guttural monosyllabic sound similar to the rapid fluttering of a human tongue.

armadillo: …the larger hairy armadillo (Chaetophractus villosus), which ranges far into southern Chile.

annelid: Annotated classification: Order Chaetopterida Two to 3 distinct body regions; prostomium with palpi; modified setae on segment 4; tube dweller; examples of genera: Chaetopterus (parchment worm), Spiochaetopterus. Order Magelonida Long, slender bodies divided into 2 regions; prostomium flattened with 2 long

parchment worm, (genus Chaetopterus), any of several species of segmented worms of the class Polychaeta (phylum Annelida), especially C. variopedatus of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. They live on the sea bottom in U-shaped tubes that are lined with parchmentlike material. Parchment worms grow to

parchment worm: >Chaetopterus), any of several species of segmented worms of the class Polychaeta (phylum Annelida), especially C. variopedatus of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. They live on the sea bottom in U-shaped tubes that are lined with parchmentlike material. Parchment worms grow to a length of…

Lepidoptera: Head: …cluster of sensory bristles (the chaetosema) on each side of the head near the eye. On either side of the head is a large compound eye, sometimes consisting of thousands of units (ommatidia). Most moths have, in addition to the compound eyes, a pair of very small simple eyes (ocelli),…

coleopteran: Annotated classification: Family Chaetosomatidae 3 genera in New Zealand. Family Cleridae (checkered beetles) Small; many brightly coloured; downy; most adults and larvae predatory on other insects; some adults pollen feeders; about 3,000 species, mainly tropical; examples Corynetes, Necrobia.

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Chaetosphaeriales Saprotrophic; ascomata subglobose to globose; paraphyses sparse to abundant; asci unitunicate, may lack apical ring; included in subclass Sordariomycetidae; examples of genera include Chaetosphaeria, Melanochaeta, Zignoëlla, and Striatosphaeria. Order Coniochaetales Saprotrophic; ascomata subglobose to

dipteran: General appearance: …based on them is called chaetotaxy.

fungus: Annotated classification: Order Chaetothyriales Pathogenic in humans or saprotrophic on plants; ascocarps contain sterile filaments on the reproductive organs; included in subclass Chaetothyriomycetidae; example genera include Capronia, Ceramothyrium, and Chaetothyrium. Order Pyrenulales Parasitic, saprotrophic, or symbiotic with algae to form lichens; asci

swift: …the best-known swifts is the chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica), a spine-tailed, uniformly dark gray bird that breeds in eastern North America and winters in South America, nesting in such recesses as chimneys and hollow trees; about 17 other Chaetura species are known worldwide. The common swift (Apus apus), called simply…

swift: …soft-tailed swifts, and Chaeturinae, or spine-tailed swifts. Almost worldwide in distribution, swifts are absent only from polar regions, southern Chile and Argentina, New Zealand, and most of Australia.

Chafarinas Islands, three small rocky islets of the Spanish exclave of Melilla, located off northeastern Morocco, 7 miles (11 km) northwest of the mouth of the Oued Moulouya. They are probably the tres insulae (“three islands”) of the 3rd-century Roman roadbook Itinerarium Antonini and have been

Macro-Siouan hypothesis: …the work of American linguist Wallace Chafe in the 1960s and ’70s. The evidence he presented in favour of the proposed linguistic kinship is held to be unpersuasive by most linguists, who believe that most of the evidence may be explained as accidental similarities, borrowings, and so on, rather than…

Sheldon Whitehouse: …and defeated the Republican incumbent Lincoln Chafee. After taking office in 2007, he became known as a liberal Democrat, though he did not always vote with the party. He notably opposed Pres. Barack Obama’s administration on certain cap-and-trade provisions meant to reduce effects of climate change, arguing that they did…

Zechariah Chafee, Jr. was a U.S. legal scholar known for his advocacy of civil liberties. His first book, Freedom of Speech (1920), was evoked by measures aimed at political dissenters in World War I. A rewritten and expanded version, Free Speech in the United States (1941), became a leading text

chafer, (subfamily Melolonthinae), any of a group of beetles in the family Scarabaeidae (insect order Coleoptera). Adult leaf chafers (Macrodactylus) eat foliage, whereas grubs feed underground on plant roots. The adult female deposits her eggs in the soil, and the larvae live underground for two

decoy: …of active decoy known as chaff, which consists of tiny strips of aluminum or zinc that the aircraft releases in large bunches. These metallic clouds appear as separate targets to the missile’s radar and ideally confuse the missile, thus permitting the aircraft to escape.

Emory Leon Chaffee: His dissertation established the “Chaffee gap”—a method of producing continuous oscillations for long-distance telephone transmissions. He taught at Harvard (1911–53) and in 1940 succeeded G.W. Pierce as director of the Cruft Laboratory. He was also co-director of the Lyman Laboratory of Physics (1947–53) and director of the Laboratories of…

Adna R. Chaffee was a U.S. army officer who enlisted in the Union cavalry in 1861 and rose in rank to become chief of staff of the U.S. army. After long service against the Indians in the West, Chaffee was promoted to the rank of brigadier general (1898) at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War,

Adna R. Chaffee was a U.S. army officer who enlisted in the Union cavalry in 1861 and rose in rank to become chief of staff of the U.S. army. After long service against the Indians in the West, Chaffee was promoted to the rank of brigadier general (1898) at the outbreak of the Spanish-American War,

Dred Scott: Final days as a freedman: …second husband, the abolitionist doctor Calvin Chaffee, now a Massachusetts representative, learned that his wife owned the most famous slave in America just before the court handed down its momentous decision in Scott’s case on March 6, 1857. Defenders of slavery ridiculed the hypocrisy of a man who owned slaves…

Emory Leon Chaffee was a U.S. physicist known for his work on thermionic vacuum (electron) tubes. Chaffee received the Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1911. His dissertation established the “Chaffee gap”—a method of producing continuous oscillations for long-distance telephone transmissions. He

Roger B. Chaffee was a U.S. astronaut who was a member of the three-man Apollo 1 crew killed when a flash fire swept their space capsule during a simulation of a launching. Chaffee died along with the veteran space travellers Virgil I. Grissom and Edward H. White II. They were the first casualties

Roger B. Chaffee was a U.S. astronaut who was a member of the three-man Apollo 1 crew killed when a flash fire swept their space capsule during a simulation of a launching. Chaffee died along with the veteran space travellers Virgil I. Grissom and Edward H. White II. They were the first casualties

pottery: European influence and the export trade: …error on the part of William Chaffers (the author of a book on pottery marks), who persisted in attributing these wares to the small English factory at Lowestoft. If this porcelain is important at all, it is as a curiosity; the artistic value is nearly always negligible. The styles are…

Jason and the Argonauts: Production notes and credits:

chaffinch, (Fringilla coelebs), songbird of the family Fringillidae (order Passeriformes) that breeds in gardens and farmlands from Europe and northern Africa to central Asia (and, by introduction, South Africa). It is the commonest finch in western Europe. The 15-cm (6-inch) male is bluish

keffiyeh: Variations: In Iran the chafiyeh is worn atop the head and is typically checkered in a dark color, such as green, purple, or blue.

Chaga, Bantu-speaking people living on the fertile southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania. They are one of the wealthiest and most highly organized of Tanzanian peoples. Chaga land and cultivation methods support a very dense population. They practice an intensive irrigated

Marc Chagall was a Belorussian-born French painter, printmaker, and designer who composed his images based on emotional and poetic associations, rather than on rules of pictorial logic. Predating Surrealism, his early works, such as I and the Village (1911), were among the first expressions of

Chagas disease, infection with the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. It is transmitted to humans by bloodsucking reduviid bugs and is endemic in most rural areas of Central and South America. Chagas disease was discovered in 1908–09 by Brazilian physician Carlos Chagas. Chagas disease is most

Chagatai was the second son of Genghis Khan who, at his father’s death, received Kashgaria (now the southern part of Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China) and most of Transoxania between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya (ancient Oxus and Jaxartes rivers, respectively) as his vassal kingdom.

India: Taxation and distribution of revenue resources: …their occupation of Afghanistan, the Chagatai Mongols began to penetrate well beyond the Punjab, necessitating a comprehensive defense program for the sultanate, including the capital, Delhi, which underwent a two-month siege in 1303. Besides fortifying the capital and supplying the frontier towns and forts with able commanders, marshaling a large…

Chagatai literature, the body of written works produced in Chagatai, a classical Turkic literary language of Central Asia. Chagatai literature took shape after the conversion of the Mongol Golden Horde to Islam, a process completed under the 14th-century khan Öz Beg. The first literary efforts in

history of Central Asia: Timur: …the arts, and architecture, with Chagatai Turkish, a dialect derived partly from Khakani, the language spoken at the Karakhanid court (and a precursor of modern Uzbek), emerging as a flexible vehicle for sophisticated literary expression. These Timurid epigones, however, were locked in unceasing rivalry with each other and were unable…

Chaga, Bantu-speaking people living on the fertile southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania. They are one of the wealthiest and most highly organized of Tanzanian peoples. Chaga land and cultivation methods support a very dense population. They practice an intensive irrigated

Chagatai was the second son of Genghis Khan who, at his father’s death, received Kashgaria (now the southern part of Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China) and most of Transoxania between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya (ancient Oxus and Jaxartes rivers, respectively) as his vassal kingdom.

history of Central Asia: Timur: …the arts, and architecture, with Chagatai Turkish, a dialect derived partly from Khakani, the language spoken at the Karakhanid court (and a precursor of modern Uzbek), emerging as a flexible vehicle for sophisticated literary expression. These Timurid epigones, however, were locked in unceasing rivalry with each other and were unable…

Alp-Arslan: Alp-Arslan was the son of Chaghri Beg, the ruler of Khorāsān in Iran, and the nephew of Toghrïl, the governor of western Iran, the base of Seljuq expansion. In 1061 his father died. When, in 1063, his uncle died without issue, Alp-Arslan became sole heir to all the possessions of…

M.C. Chagla was an Indian statesman and government official, known for his dedication to Indian civil liberties. Chagla, a respected liberal lawyer and jurist, was chief justice of the Bombay High Court from 1947 to 1958 and a judge of the International Court of Justice at The Hague from 1957 to

M.C. Chagla was an Indian statesman and government official, known for his dedication to Indian civil liberties. Chagla, a respected liberal lawyer and jurist, was chief justice of the Bombay High Court from 1947 to 1958 and a judge of the International Court of Justice at The Hague from 1957 to

Chagos Archipelago, island group in the central Indian Ocean, located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. It is coterminous with the British Indian Ocean

British Indian Ocean Territory: History: …and 1973, Britain removed the Ilois, or Chagossians—inhabitants of the Chagos Archipelago, descended from African slaves and Indian plantation workers. They were given the choice of resettlement in either Seychelles or Mauritius, which became independent in 1968; the majority chose the latter. A small number of Ilois went to the…

Panama: Settlement patterns: …River, is known as the Chagres, or Route, region. It includes the cities of Panama City and Colón, the urban district of San Miguelito, and the towns of Balboa, La Chorrera, Gamboa, and Cristóbal. Panama City, situated on the Pacific coast overlooking the Bay of Panama, is the dominant population…

Chagres River, stream in Panama forming part of the Panama Canal system. It rises in the Cordillera de San Blas, flows south-southwest, and broadens to form Madden Lake (22 square miles [57 square km]) at Madden Dam, which was built in 1935 for navigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power.

Alp-Arslan: Alp-Arslan was the son of Chaghri Beg, the ruler of Khorāsān in Iran, and the nephew of Toghrïl, the governor of western Iran, the base of Seljuq expansion. In 1061 his father died. When, in 1063, his uncle died without issue, Alp-Arslan became sole heir to all the possessions of…

ayahuasca: …other plants, most notably the chagropanga plant (Diplopterys cabrerana), may be used. B. caapi is a source of harmine, an alkaloid that inhibits the breakdown in the digestive system of DMT (dimethyltryptamine), the psychoactive substance that the other plant supplies.

Caribbean Community: …Market in 1973 by the Treaty of Chaguaramas. It replaced the former Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which had become effective in 1968. The treaty spurred the development of associate institutions, including the Caribbean Development Bank and the Organization of East Caribbean States, both of which promote economic growth and…

Chahar, eastern tribe of Mongols, prominent in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Chahar were part of the empire of Dayan Khan (1470–1543), the last great khan of a united Mongolia. After his death the khanate remained formally among the Chahar, although it was substantially weakened. The last

Afghanistan: Ethnic groups: The Chahar Aimak are probably of Turkic or Turco-Mongolian origin, judging by their physical appearance and their housing (Mongolian-style yurts). They are located mostly in the western part of the central mountain region.

Chahar, eastern tribe of Mongols, prominent in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Chahar were part of the empire of Dayan Khan (1470–1543), the last great khan of a united Mongolia. After his death the khanate remained formally among the Chahar, although it was substantially weakened. The last

Eṣfahān: Historical city: …a side road is the Chahār Bāgh (“Four Gardens”), the avenue that ʿAbbās made to give access to his capital from the south. (According to legend the monarch had to purchase four gardens in order to construct the road.) The Chahār Bāgh runs southward to the Zāyandeh River, which it…

Islamic arts: Belles lettres: …works in this field is Chahār maqāleh (“Four Treatises”) by Neẓāmī-ye ʿArūẕī, a writer from eastern Iran. Written about 1156, this little book is an excellent introduction to the ideals of Persian literature and its writers, discussing in detail what is required to make a perfect poet, giving a number…

Asghar Farhadi: Chahārshanbe Sūrī (2006; Fireworks Wednesday) examines the strained marriage of a middle-class Tehrān couple during Chahārshanbe Sūrī, the feast preceding Nowrūz, the Persian New Year festival. In Darbāreye Elī (2009; About Elly), conflicts and emotional revelations arise when a young teacher disappears while vacationing with a group of…

Ennahda Party: …their party’s own prime minister, Youssef Chahed, especially due to clashes with the party’s executive director; Ennahda’s continued support for Chahed helped him survive a vote of confidence.

Wahpeton, city, seat (1873) of Richland county, southeastern North Dakota, U.S. It lies on the Minnesota border across from Breckenridge, Minnesota, at the point where the Bois de Sioux and Otter Tail rivers merge to become the Red River of the North. Settled in 1864 by Morgan T. Rich and initially

Chao Phraya River: Its tortuous course flows past Chai Nat (site of a government dam and irrigation scheme), Sing Buri, Ang Thong, Nonthaburi, and Bangkok to its mouth at Samut Prakan. From its formation at Nakhon Sawan, the river falls less than 80 feet (24 meters) in its journey to the sea.

Chaibasa, town, southeastern Jharkhand state, northeastern India. It lies just west of the Raru River, which is a tributary of the Subarnarekha River. Chaibasa became a municipality in 1875. The town is known as a road junction and agricultural trade centre, and it is also heavily engaged in the

Qaidam Basin, northeastern section of the Plateau of Tibet, occupying the northwestern part of Qinghai province, western China. The basin is bounded on the south by the towering Kunlun Mountains—with many peaks in the western part exceeding 20,000 feet (6,000 meters) above sea level—and on the

Joseph Chaikin was an American stage director, actor, and writer. He was a member of the Living Theatre before founding the Open Theatre (1963), which became an influential force in experimental theatre. His celebrated productions, the results of intense collaboration between writer, director, and

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was the most popular Russian composer of all time. His music has always had great appeal for the general public in virtue of its tuneful, open-hearted melodies, impressive harmonies, and colourful, picturesque orchestration, all of which evoke a profound emotional response.

Nikolay Vasilyevich Chaykovsky was a revolutionary socialist and leader of the early Narodnik movement in Russia. Having joined a radical students’ circle in St. Petersburg in 1869, Chaykovsky became its leader when its founder, Mark Natanson, was arrested (1871); the group became known as the

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was the most popular Russian composer of all time. His music has always had great appeal for the general public in virtue of its tuneful, open-hearted melodies, impressive harmonies, and colourful, picturesque orchestration, all of which evoke a profound emotional response.

Nile River: Study and exploration: …Lake Albert was mapped, and Charles Chaillé-Long, an American, discovered Lake Kyoga. In 1875 Henry Morton Stanley traveled up from the east coast and circumnavigated Lake Victoria. His attempt to get to Lake Albert was not successful, but he marched to Lake Tanganyika and traveled down the Congo River to…

Western architecture: France: …styles were dominated by the Chaillot Palace, built from designs by Jacques Carlu, Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, and Léon Azéma. This is a striking example of the austere trabeated classicism that was the most popular style for public buildings in the 1930s in many parts of the United States and Europe. It…

Chaillu Massif, mountain range in south-central Gabon, which rises to more than 3,300 feet (1,000 m) between the Ngounié and the Ogooué rivers and forms the country’s main watershed. The range contains Mount Milondo (3,346 feet [1,020 m]), which is 53 miles (85 km) southwest of Koula-Moutou. Other

Chaillu Massif: …is named for the explorer Paul du Chaillu, who noted the mountains during his journeys up the Ngounié River (1855–65).

Sholem Asch: …Moses), Khayim Lederers tsurikkumen (1927; Chaim Lederer’s Return), and Toyt urteyl (1926; “Death Sentence”; Eng. trans. Judge Not—). These novels describe the cultural and economic conflicts experienced by eastern European Jewish immigrants in America.

chain, series of links, usually of metal, joined together to form a flexible connector for various purposes, such as holding, pulling, hoisting, hauling, conveying, and transmitting power. The simplest and oldest type of chain is the coil chain, which is made from straight metal bars that are bent

elastomer: Polymers and elasticity: …referred to as the “chain,” and the atoms between which the chemical bonding takes place are said to make up the “backbone” of the chain. In most cases polymers are made up of carbon backbones—that is, chains of carbon (C) atoms linked together by single (C―C) or double (C=C)…

combinatorics: Definitions: A chain of a graph G is an alternating sequence of vertices and edges x0, e1, x1, e2, · · · en, xn, beginning and ending with vertices in which each edge is incident with the two vertices immediately preceding and following it. This chain joins…

chain, in surveying, a unit of length. See surveyor’s

chain drive, Device widely used for the transmission of power where shafts are separated at distances greater than that for which gears are practical. In such cases, sprockets (wheels with teeth shaped to mesh with a chain) take the place of gears and drive one another by means of a chain passing

antioxidant: …of which intermediate products called chain carriers are regenerated. Such a reaction will continue as long as the chain carriers persist. In autoxidation the chain carriers are free radicals, electrically neutral molecular fragments containing unpaired electrons. The chain can be initiated by thermally excited molecules, free radicals, metal catalysts, or…

conspiracy: …offense; for example, a “chain conspiracy” involves several transactions all directed toward a common unlawful objective. The courts differ as to what extent a party at one end of the chain should be liable for the acts of the parties at the other end. Also, in a “hub conspiracy,”…

Halysites, extinct genus of corals found as fossils in marine rocks from the Late Ordovician Period to the end of the Silurian Period (461 million to 416 million years ago). Halysites is also known as the chain coral from the manner of growth observed in fossilized specimens; the genus is colonial,

chain drive, Device widely used for the transmission of power where shafts are separated at distances greater than that for which gears are practical. In such cases, sprockets (wheels with teeth shaped to mesh with a chain) take the place of gears and drive one another by means of a chain passing

combustion: Chain-branch reactions: …case, what is called a chain explosion will occur when the probabilities of chain branching and of termination are equal. Usually, however, explosions are of a chain-thermal nature (i.e., both heat accumulation and chain auto-acceleration contribute to explosion).

Blechnaceae, the chain fern family (order Polypodiales), containing 7–9 genera and more than 200 species. The family occurs nearly around the world but is most diverse in tropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Nearly all of the species are terrestrial or grow on rocks. A number of species of

radar: First military radars: …first British radar system, the Chain Home, had gone into 24-hour operation, and it remained operational throughout the war. The Chain Home radars allowed Britain to deploy successfully its limited air defenses against the heavy German air attacks conducted during the early part of the war. They operated at about…

chemical kinetics: Composite reaction mechanisms: …repeated is known as the chain length.

bead lightning, form of lightning of longer duration than more typical lightning that appears as a string of luminous segments instead of a continuous channel. It occurs infrequently but has been observed many times. Its causes are unknown, but among the theories proposed are the following:

chain mail, form of body armour worn by European knights and other military men throughout most of the medieval period. An early form of mail, made by sewing iron rings to fabric or leather, was worn in late Roman times and may have originated in Asia, where such mail continued to be worn for many

Great Chain of Being, conception of the nature of the universe that had a pervasive influence on Western thought, particularly through the ancient Greek Neoplatonists and derivative philosophies during the European Renaissance and the 17th and early 18th centuries. The term denotes three general

Seymour Hersh: Those articles—later collected in Chain of Command: The Road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib (2004)—culminated in Hersh’s earthshaking exposé of inmate abuse at Abu Ghraib prison, which he traced beyond the U.S. soldiers involved to policy formulated at the highest levels of the administration of Pres. George W. Bush.…

André Philippus Brink: …later works include Houd-den-bek (1982; A Chain of Voices), which recounts through many points of view a slave revolt in 1825; Die kreef raak gewoond daaraan (1991; An Act of Terror); Anderkant die stilte (2002; The Other Side of Silence); Bidsprinkaan (2005; Praying Mantis); and Philida (2012). He also wrote…

pickerel: The chain pickerel (Esox niger) grows to about 0.6 metre (2 feet) and a weight of 1.4 to 1.8 kilograms (3 to 4 pounds).