printing: Xylography: …of Latin grammar by Aelius Donatus and called donats, were published by a method identical to that of the Chinese. Given the Western alphabet, it would seem reasonable that the next step taken might have been to carve blocks of writing that, instead of texts, would simply contain a large…

The 39 Steps: …London, Richard Hannay (played by Robert Donat) befriends a scared woman (Lucie Mannheim) who, in the course of an evening, tells him that she is actually a spy and makes a cryptic reference to “the 39 steps.” The woman is later murdered, and Hannay becomes the prime suspect. He flees…

donatário, the recipient of a capitania (captaincy), both a territorial division and a royal land grant in Portuguese colonies, especially Brazil. The Portuguese had used the captaincy system with success in the Madeira Islands and the Azores, and in 1533 King John III decided to employ it to

Donatello was a master of sculpture in both marble and bronze, one of the greatest of all Italian Renaissance artists. A good deal is known about Donatello’s life and career, but little is known about his character and personality, and what is known is not wholly reliable. He never married and he

Corso Donati was a Florentine nobleman and soldier who formed and led the political faction known as the Blacks (Neri). He was master of Florence from 1301 to 1308. Of a prominent Guelf (pro-papal) family, Donati acquired much influence in the Florentine government, especially after his victory

Giovanni Battista Donati was an Italian astronomer who, on Aug. 5, 1864, was first to observe the spectrum of a comet (Comet 1864 II). This observation indicated correctly that comet tails contain luminous gas and do not shine merely by reflected sunlight. Between 1854 and 1864 Donati discovered

Donatia, the only genus of the family Donatiaceae, of the aster order (Asterales), containing two species of small cushion plants, native to the subalpine regions of Tasmania, New Zealand, and South America. The little plants form dense spirals of narrow, thick, leathery leaves. Donatia flowers,

René Bazin: Donatienne (1903) is an account of the fortunes of a young Breton couple. Forced by poverty, the young mother, Donatienne, goes into service in the city, where she succumbs to the corruption of city life. The young husband, after losing his farm, leads the wretched…

Now that your budget is under control and you have some excess funds, you’re thinking of donating to a charity. But how do you know which charity to support? Why are some charities called 501(c)(3)s? Key Points Donating to a 501(c)(3)When you want to give back. © New Africa/stock.adobe.com Section

Donation of Constantine, the best-known and most important forgery of the Middle Ages, the document purporting to record the Roman emperor Constantine the Great’s bestowal of vast territory and spiritual and temporal power on Pope Sylvester I (reigned 314–335) and his successors. Based on legends

Donation of Pippin, traditional name of the oral or written promise made by the Carolingian king Pippin III to Pope Stephen II (or III) granting the pope rights over large territories in central Italy. The Donation was an important step in the development of the Papal States and helped to solidify

Donatist, a member of a Christian group in North Africa that broke with the Roman Catholics in 312 over the election of Caecilian as bishop of Carthage; the name derived from their leader, Donatus (d. c. 355). Historically, the Donatists belong to the tradition of early Christianity that produced

Donatist: …name derived from their leader, Donatus (d. c. 355). Historically, the Donatists belong to the tradition of early Christianity that produced the Montanist and Novatianist movements in Asia Minor and the Melitians in Egypt. They opposed state interference in church affairs, and, through the peasant warriors called Circumcellions, they had…

Aelius Donatus was a famous grammarian and teacher of rhetoric at Rome, one of whose pupils was Eusebius Hieronymus (later St. Jerome). Donatus wrote a large and a small school grammar, Ars maior and Ars minor. The latter was written for young students and gives, by question and answer, elementary

Armenian rite: …upon such books as the Donatzuitz, the order of service, or celebration of the liturgy; the Badarakamaduitz, the book of the sacrament, containing all the prayers used by the priest; the Giashotz, the book of midday, containing the Epistle and Gospel readings for each day; and the Z’amagirq, the book…

Danube River, river, the second longest in Europe after the Volga. It rises in the Black Forest mountains of western Germany and flows for some 1,770 miles (2,850 km) to its mouth on the Black Sea. Along its course it passes through 10 countries: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia,

Donau Glacial Stage, major division of early Pleistocene time and deposits in the Alpine region of Europe (the Pleistocene Epoch dates from about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). The Donau Glacial Stage preceded the Donau-Günz Interglacial Stage and is represented by the Donau Gravels. The Donau

Donau-Günz Interglacial Stage, major division of early Pleistocene time and deposits in the Alpine region of Europe (the Pleistocene Epoch dates from about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago). The Donau-Günz Interglacial, a period of relatively moderate climatic conditions, followed the Donau Glacial

Danube school, a tradition of landscape painting that developed in the region of the Danube River valley in the early years of the 16th century. A number of painters are considered to have been members of the Danube school. Chief among them was the Regensburg master Albrecht Altdorfer (c.

Donauwörth, city and port, Bavaria Land (state), southern Germany. It lies at the confluence of the Danube and Wörnitz rivers, some 25 miles (40 km) north-northwest of Augsburg. There is evidence of settlement of the site from the 6th century ce. The city itself grew up around the Mangoldstein, a

Leoben, town, southeast-central Austria, on the Mur River, northwest of Graz. An ancient settlement, it was reestablished as a town by Ottokar II of Bohemia about 1263. Medieval buildings include the Maria am Waasen Church (12th century, rebuilt 15th century) with magnificent Gothic stained-glass

coquina clam, any bivalve mollusk of the genus Donax. These marine invertebrates inhabit sandy beaches along coasts worldwide. A typical species, Donax variabilis, measures only about 10 to 25 mm (0.4 to 1 inch) in length. Its shell is wedge-shaped and varies widely in colour from white, yellow,

coquina clam, any bivalve mollusk of the genus Donax. These marine invertebrates inhabit sandy beaches along coasts worldwide. A typical species, Donax variabilis, measures only about 10 to 25 mm (0.4 to 1 inch) in length. Its shell is wedge-shaped and varies widely in colour from white, yellow,

clam: The northern coquina (D. fossor), 6 to 12 mm long, is yellowish white with bluish rays and inhabits shallow waters from Long Island to Cape May, New Jersey.

clam: The southern coquina (Donax variabilis), 1 to 2.5 cm long and pink, yellow, blue, white, or mauve, occurs on sandy beaches from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. The northern coquina (D. fossor), 6 to 12 mm long, is yellowish white with bluish rays and inhabits shallow waters…

Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of

Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of

clay mineral: Chlorite: …aluminum hydroxide sheet are called donbassite and have the ideal formula of Al4.33(Si3Al)O10(OH)8 as an end-member for the dioctahedral chlorite. In many cases, the octahedral aluminum ions are partially replaced by magnesium, as in magnesium-rich aluminum dioctahedral chlorites called sudoite. Cookeite is another type of dioctahedral chlorite, in which lithium…

Doncaster: borough, metropolitan county of South Yorkshire, north-central England. The borough lies in the historic county of Yorkshire, except for the parish of Finningley and an area west of Bawtry, both of which belong to the historic county of Nottinghamshire. Besides the town of Doncaster, the…

Doncaster, town and metropolitan borough, metropolitan county of South Yorkshire, north-central England. The borough lies in the historic county of Yorkshire, except for the parish of Finningley and an area west of Bawtry, both of which belong to the historic county of Nottinghamshire. Besides the

James Scott, duke of Monmouth was a claimant to the English throne who led an unsuccessful rebellion against King James II in 1685. Although the strikingly handsome Monmouth had the outward bearing of an ideal monarch, he lacked the intelligence and resolution needed for a determined struggle for

Luka Dončić is widely considered one of the best players currently in the National Basketball Association (NBA). His incredible strength, skill, and basketball acumen have helped him excel at most facets of the game, including shooting, passing, and rebounding. In February 2025 the Slovenian-born

Yonkers: Adriaen van der Donck—known as De Jonkheer, a courtesy title roughly equivalent to “young lord” or “gentleman” (whence, phonetically, Yonkers)—was given a land grant in 1646 and established the patroonship (estate) of Colendonck in 1652. The lands were then bought by Frederick Philipse, who built…

Kanye West: Social media controversies, ye, Donald Trump, and Donda: …released his 10th studio album, Donda. Named for his mother, it features collaborations with such artists as JAY-Z and The Weeknd. He also opened a private Christian school in California called Donda Academy, though the school was soon beset with numerous complaints and lawsuits. Later that year Kanye West officially…

Frans Cornelis Donders: …what is now known as Donders’ law: the rotation of the eye around the line of sight is involuntary.

Frans Cornelis Donders was an ophthalmologist, the most eminent of 19th-century Dutch physicians, whose investigations of the physiology and pathology of the eye made possible a scientific approach to the correction of refractive disabilities such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, and

Donetsk, city, southeastern Ukraine, on the headwaters of the Kalmius River. It is the capital of Donetsk oblast (province) and the most prominent city in the Donets Basin (Donbas) industrial region. In 1872 an ironworks was founded there by a Welshman, John Hughes (from whom the town’s

Donegal, most northerly county of Ireland, in the historic province of Ulster. The small village of Lifford in eastern Donegal is the county seat. Donegal is bounded on the west and north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by Lough (lake) Foyle and Northern Ireland, and on the south by Northern

Donegal, seaport and market town, County Donegal, Ireland, on the River Eske at the head of Donegal Bay. It is famed for its historic associations and picturesque environs. South of the town are the ruins of the Franciscan Donegal Abbey (founded 1474). Donegal Castle, a stronghold of the

Donegal: …are the ruins of the Franciscan Donegal Abbey (founded 1474). Donegal Castle, a stronghold of the O’Donnells, was rebuilt in the early 17th century. The town is noted for its handwoven tweed. Pop. (2002) 2,453; (2011) 2,607.

Rory O’Donnell, 1st earl of Tyrconnell was an Irish chieftain who rebelled against the English and died in exile. The second son of Sir Aodh O’Donnell, lord of Tyrconnell, he allied with his elder brother Hugh Roe O’Donnell, who transferred his authority as chief to Rory upon leaving for Spain. In

Kristijonas Donelaitis was a Lutheran pastor and poet who was one of the greatest Lithuanian poets and one of the first to be appreciated outside his country. Donelaitis studied theology and classical languages at the University of Königsberg (1736–40) and in 1743 became pastor of the village of

United States presidential election of 1856: Campaign and results: …as the Know-Nothing nominee, with Andrew J. Donelson of Tennessee as his running mate; the Whigs united behind Fillmore rather than proposing their own candidate.

Nashville: History: …1780 by another group under John Donelson. Fort Nashborough, built at the site and named for American Revolutionary War general Francis Nash, became the centre of the new community. (A replica of the fort stands in a park along the Cumberland River.) Henderson is also credited with having written the…

Rachel Jackson was the wife of U.S. Army general and president-elect Andrew Jackson, who became the seventh president of the United States (1829–37). She died less than three months before his inauguration. Rachel, the daughter of Colonel John Donelson, a surveyor, and Rachel Stockley Donelson,

Stanley Donen was an American motion-picture director and choreographer who was one of the most influential directors of movie musicals in the 1940s and ’50s. Donen, who was the son of a dress-shop owner, faced prejudice growing up in one of the few Jewish families in his South Carolina community

anticholinesterase: …donepezil, which is marketed as Aricept, was found to marginally benefit some persons with early-onset Alzheimer disease, its use has been primarily limited to individuals with late-stage disease, for whom the benefits outweigh the risks of side effects.

kebab: Döner kebab, which takes its name from the Turkish words meaning “rotating meat,” is similar to shawarma and gyros: the meat is sliced, stacked, and roasted on a vertical spit and then carved off the spit and served in pita or some other flatbread. The…

Kentucky Derby: Records: …history occurred in 1913, when Donerail won at odds of 91–1. The first filly to win the Kentucky Derby was Regret in 1915; Genuine Risk (1980) and Winning Colors (1988) are the only other fillies to have won.

Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of

Donets River, a tributary of the Don River, southwestern Russia and eastern Ukraine. The Donets is 650 miles (1,050 km) long and drains a basin of 39,000 square miles (100,000 square km). Rising in the Central Russian Upland, it flows southward past Belgorod, Russia; enters Ukraine and passes to

Donetsk, city, southeastern Ukraine, on the headwaters of the Kalmius River. It is the capital of Donetsk oblast (province) and the most prominent city in the Donets Basin (Donbas) industrial region. In 1872 an ironworks was founded there by a Welshman, John Hughes (from whom the town’s

Alchevsk: …with the establishment of the Donetsko-Yuryevsky ironworks. The plant developed into a large, integrated ironworks and steelworks, which was expanded greatly in the 1950s and ’60s. The city has been a major bituminous-coal mining centre, with coke-chemical and metalworking industries. Pop. (2001) 119,193; (2005 est.) 116,954.

Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of

Donbas, large mining and industrial region of southeastern Europe, notable for its sizable coal reserves. The industrial area of the Donbas includes much of the Ukrainian oblasti (provinces) of Donetsk and Luhansk. The Donbas coalfield lies primarily in southeastern Ukraine, but a small portion of

Dong, an ethnic minority of China found in southeastern Guizhou province and in neighbouring Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi and Hunan province. According to most linguists the Dong speak a Kam-Sui language that is closely related to the Tai languages, and they call themselves Kam. The Dong

Southeast Asian arts: Art of the northern capital: 4th–11th century: …most important of these is Dong Duong, in Quang Nam. It is a ruined Buddhist monastery complex of the late 9th century, conceived on the most beautifully elaborated plan of structured space in Champa. The architectural detail is distinguished from the My Son work by its greater emphasis upon the…

East China Sea, arm of the Pacific Ocean bordering the East Asian mainland and extending northeastward from the South China Sea, to which it is connected by the shallow Taiwan Strait between Taiwan and mainland China. The East China Sea and the South China Sea together form the China Sea. The East

China: Dong (Eastern) Han: The Han house was restored by Liu Xiu, better known as Guangwudi, who reigned from 25 to 57 ce. His claim had been contested by another member of the Liu house—Liu Xuan, better known as Liu Gengshi—who had been actually enthroned for…

Zhangdi was an emperor (reigned ad 75–88) of the Han dynasty (206 bc–ad 220), whose reign marked the beginning of the dissipation of Han rule. The Zhangdi emperor’s reign was the third since the Liu family had restored the Han imperial dynasty following Wang Mang’s usurpation of power, and

Tung Chee-hwa is a Chinese businessman and politician and, upon the completion of the handover of Hong Kong back to China on July 1, 1997, he became the first chief executive (1997–2005) of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (S.A.R.) of China. Tung was the son of C.Y. Tung, founder of

Dong Jin, second phase of the Jin dynasty (265–420 ce), ruling China from 317 to 420 ce and forming one of the Six

Hanoi, city, capital of Vietnam. The city is situated in northern Vietnam on the western bank of the Red River, about 85 miles (140 km) inland from the South China Sea. In addition to being the national capital, Hanoi is also a province-level municipality (thanh pho), administered by the central

Dong Nai River, river rising in the central highlands (Annamese Cordillera) of southern Vietnam, northwest of Da Lat. Near its source the river has rapids and is known as the Da Dung River. It flows west and southwest for about 300 miles (480 km), joining the Saigon River southwest of Bien Hoa. At

Dong Qichang was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and theoretician who was one of the finest artists of the late Ming period. The most distinguished connoisseur of his day, Dong Qichang set forward ideas that have continued to influence Chinese aesthetic theory. Dong Qichang was born to a poor but

Dong Son culture, important prehistoric culture of Indochina; it is named for a village in northern Vietnam where many of its remains have been found. The Dong Son site shows that bronze culture was introduced into Indochina from the north, probably about 300 bc, the date of the earliest Dong Son

Thap Muoi Plain, low, basinlike, alluvial swampy region, a northwestern extension of the Mekong delta, in southern Vietnam and eastern Cambodia. It is bounded on the southeast by the Tien Giang River, the main channel of the Mekong River, and also drains to a lesser extent into the parallel Vam Co

Juran: …was supposedly a follower of Dong Yuan, a similarly little-known painter of the Five Dynasties in the court at Nanjing. No certain authentic works survive, but those considered to be in his style and in that of his teacher Dong make use of relaxed fibrous brushstrokes, wet ink washes, and…

Dong Zhongshu was a scholar instrumental in establishing Confucianism in 136 bce as the state cult of China and as the basis of official political philosophy—a position it was to hold for 2,000 years. As a philosopher, Dong merged the Confucian and Yinyang schools of thought. As a chief minister to

education: Dong (Eastern) Zhou (770–256 bce): ” This was a period of social change brought about by the disintegration of the feudal order, the breakdown of traditional loyalties, the rise of cities and urban civilization, and the growth of commerce.

Dong Zhuo was a general whose seizure of power and tyrannical rule ended the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce) and divided the Chinese empire. In 190 ce Dong Zhuo burned Luoyang, the capital, and removed himself and the emperor to the ancient capital of Chang’an (now Xi’an). At his fief he built the

Thomas Dongan, 2nd earl of Limerick was a British colonial governor of New York under Charles II and James II. A Roman Catholic and a member of a royalist family, Dongan was exiled after the English Civil Wars (1642–51) and served in an Irish regiment of the French army. Recalled to England in

Naxi: Their indigenous religion, called Dongba, is a form of shamanism influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. Matriarchal family structure predominated among the Naxi until the mid-20th century, and remnants of it can still be observed.

Manchuria, historical region of northeastern China. Strictly speaking, it consists of the modern provinces (sheng) of Liaoning (south), Jilin (central), and Heilongjiang (north). Often, however, the northeastern portion of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region also is included. Manchuria is bounded

Northeast Plain, heart of the central lowland of northeastern China (Manchuria). It has a surface area of about 135,000 square miles (350,000 square km), all of which lies below 1,000 feet (300 metres) above sea level. The plain, largely the product of erosion from the surrounding highlands, is

Yongle: Accession to the throne of Yongle: …special eunuch agency called the Eastern Depot (Dongchang) charged with ferreting out treasonable activities. Although it did not become notorious in his own reign, it came to be a hated and feared secret police in collaboration with the imperial bodyguard in later decades and centuries.

Yunnan: Resources and power: The copper industry around Dongchuan, which supplied most of the metal for minting coins in the Qing (Manchu) dynasty (1644–1911/12), has been modernized and expanded. This led to the creation of a special economic district at Dongchuan, northeast of Kunming. Dongchuan is also one of the centres of lead…

Kees van Dongen was a Dutch-born French painter and printmaker who was one of the leading Fauvists and was particularly renowned for his stylized, sensuously rendered portraits of women. Van Dongen had artistic leanings early in his youth. He attended the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Rotterdam,

Kees van Dongen was a Dutch-born French painter and printmaker who was one of the leading Fauvists and was particularly renowned for his stylized, sensuously rendered portraits of women. Van Dongen had artistic leanings early in his youth. He attended the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Rotterdam,

tapestry: Eastern Asia: Many kesi, such as Dongfang Shuo Stealing the Peaches of Longevity, imitated paintings and were mounted on scrolls or album leaves in the same manner as the pictures they copied. Tapestries to cover large wall surfaces, such as the kesi (7 feet 3 inches by 5 feet 9 inches;…

Sea of Japan, marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded by Japan and Sakhalin Island to the east and by Russia and Korea on the Asian mainland to the west. Its area is 377,600 square miles (978,000 square km). It has a mean depth of 5,748 feet (1,752 metres) and a maximum depth of

Leizhou Peninsula: …the east coast, Naozhou and Donghai, it forms two bays, Leizhou to the south of the islands and Zhanjiang to the north. The largest city on the peninsula is Zhanjiang, which faces the bay of the same name. Administratively, the peninsula forms part of Zhanjiang municipality. The peninsula forms part…

Donghak Uprising, (1894) Korean mass revolt that sparked the first Sino-Japanese War (1894–95). Despite being persecuted for it, impoverished Koreans turned increasingly to Donghak (“Eastern Learning”; see Cheondogyo), a syncretic, nationalistic religion that opposed Western culture and espoused

Manchu, people who lived for many centuries mainly in Manchuria (now Northeast) and adjacent areas of China and who in the 17th century conquered China and ruled for more than 250 years. The term Manchu dates from the 16th century, but it is certain that the Manchu are descended from a group of

Dong, an ethnic minority of China found in southeastern Guizhou province and in neighbouring Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi and Hunan province. According to most linguists the Dong speak a Kam-Sui language that is closely related to the Tai languages, and they call themselves Kam. The Dong

Donglin, party of Chinese scholars and officials who attempted to combat the moral laxity and intellectual weakness they felt was undermining public life during the last years of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The party was founded by Gu Xiancheng, a government official forced out of office because

Donglin, party of Chinese scholars and officials who attempted to combat the moral laxity and intellectual weakness they felt was undermining public life during the last years of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The party was founded by Gu Xiancheng, a government official forced out of office because

Dongola, town, northern Sudan. It lies on the west bank of the Nile River, about 278 miles (448 km) northwest of Khartoum. The town is an agricultural centre for the surrounding area, which produces cotton, wheat, barley, sugarcane, and vegetables. Dongola is linked by road with Wādī Ḥalfāʾ and

Hainan: Cultural life: The famous Dongpo Academy of Classical Learning (Dongpo Shuyuan)—located near the northwest-central city of Danzhou, first established in 1098, and where Su gave his lectures to his students—is now a tourist attraction. The so-called Temple of Five Lords (Wugongsi) near Haikuo, which commemorates five disgraced high-ranking central…

Su Shi was one of China’s greatest poets and essayists, who was also an accomplished calligrapher and a public official. A member of a literary family, the young Su Shi performed brilliantly in his official examinations and was rewarded with the first of the many official positions he occupied

Hainan: Cultural life: The famous Dongpo Academy of Classical Learning (Dongpo Shuyuan)—located near the northwest-central city of Danzhou, first established in 1098, and where Su gave his lectures to his students—is now a tourist attraction. The so-called Temple of Five Lords (Wugongsi) near Haikuo, which commemorates five disgraced high-ranking central…

Dong, an ethnic minority of China found in southeastern Guizhou province and in neighbouring Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi and Hunan province. According to most linguists the Dong speak a Kam-Sui language that is closely related to the Tai languages, and they call themselves Kam. The Dong

Sichuan: Agriculture and forestry: …the eastern basin is the dongshuitian (literally, “winter water-storage field”) system, in which large tracts of terraced fields are left fallow during the winter season and are used for the storage of water that is needed in the paddy fields in the spring; from the air they resemble a mosaic…

Mansions in the Mountains, ink and color painting on silk created by the 10th-century Chinese artist Dong Yuan. The scroll exemplifies the elegance of his brush painting, a style that became the standard in China for the next nine centuries. Dong Yuan was active in what is now the province of

Dongting Lake, large lake in northern Hunan province, south-central China. It lies in a basin to the south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is connected to the Yangtze by four channels. Typically, some two-fifths of the river’s waters flow into the lake, the amount increasing during flood

Dongting Lake, large lake in northern Hunan province, south-central China. It lies in a basin to the south of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) and is connected to the Yangtze by four channels. Typically, some two-fifths of the river’s waters flow into the lake, the amount increasing during flood

Mongolian languages: …Monguor (Tu), Bao’an (Bonan), and Santa (Dongxiang) in the south—were isolated from the main body of Mongolian languages when the tide of Mongol conquest receded. These languages diverged from the main group of Mongolian dialects and to this day retain archaic features characteristic of Middle Mongolian that have been lost…

Liang Shuming: His influential Dongxiwenhua ji qu zhexue (1921; “The Cultures of East and West and Their Philosophies”) attempted to demonstrate to an increasingly iconoclastic and Westernized Chinese intelligentsia the modern relevance of Chinese, especially Confucian, culture. Characterizing the Western attitude as one of struggle, the Chinese attitude as…

Fuzhou, city and capital of Fujian sheng (province), southeastern China. It is situated in the eastern part of the province on the north bank of the estuary of Fujian’s largest river, the Min River, a short distance from its mouth on the East China Sea. The Min gives the city access to the interior

Dai Zhen was a Chinese empirical philosopher, considered by many to have been the greatest thinker of the Qing period (1644–1911/12). Born to poor parents, Dai educated himself by reading borrowed books. Although he passed his preliminary civil service examinations, he never passed the highly