First Folio, first published edition (1623) of the collected works of William Shakespeare, originally published as Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories & Tragedies. It is the major source for contemporary texts of his plays. The publication of drama in the early 17th century was usually

Sir Richard Burton: Exploration in Arabia: He described his adventures in First Footsteps in East Africa (1856).

First French Empire, historical empire established on May 18, 1804, with the creation of Napoleon I as “emperor of the French.” The Napoleonic empire persisted until the restoration of Louis XVIII on May 3, 1814. It enjoyed a brief resurrection during the Hundred Days (March 20, 1815–July 8, 1815)

Louis XVI: Attempt to flee the country: … and the proclamation of the First French Republic on September 21. In November, proof of Louis XVI’s secret dealings with Mirabeau and of his counterrevolutionary intrigues with the foreigners was found in a secret cupboard in the Tuileries. On December 3 it was decided that Louis, who together with his…

Court of Augmentations: The Court of First Fruits and Tenths was established in 1540 to collect from clerical benefices certain moneys that had previously been sent to Rome. First fruits were the first year’s profits owed by the new holder of a benefice; tenths were 10 percent of the…

Australian literature: The century after settlement: Field’s First Fruits of Australian Poetry (1819) was the first volume of poetry published in Australia. Those who were likely to spend a much longer term in New South Wales, as the colony was then known, expressed a profound nostalgia for “home.” The sense of exile…

Boyle’s law, a relation concerning the compression and expansion of a gas at constant temperature. This empirical relation, formulated by the physicist Robert Boyle in 1662, states that the pressure (p) of a given quantity of gas varies inversely with its volume (v) at constant temperature; i.e.,

mobile telephone: Development of cellular systems: …now referred to as “first-generation” (or 1G) systems, and the digital systems that began to appear in the late 1980s and early ’90s are known as the “second generation” (2G). Since the introduction of 2G cell phones, various enhancements have been made in order to provide data services and…

broadcasting: Establishment of a public corporation or authority: …in a national organization, the First German Television network. In each state, though there are some variations, there are a broadcasting council that is appointed by the legislature or nominated by churches, universities, associations of employers or trade unions, political parties, or the press; an administrative council; and a director…

Christianity: Messianic secrets and the mysteries of salvation: The First Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus (known also as the Arabic Infancy Gospel), for example, recounts that, one day, Jesus and his playmates were playing on a rooftop and one fell down and died. The other playmates ran away, leaving Jesus accused of pushing…

Sean Connery: …Robin and Marian (1976), and The First Great Train Robbery (1978; also released as The Great Train Robbery). In 1981 he made a memorable appearance as King Agamemnon in Terry Gilliam’s time-travel fantasy Time Bandits, and two years later he delighted Bond fans by returning to the role of 007…

sound: Fundamentals and harmonics: …frequency is known as the fundamental, or first harmonic.

Helvetic Confession: First Helvetic Confession: The First Helvetic Confession (also called the Second Confession of Basel) was composed in 1536 by Heinrich Bullinger and other Swiss delegates, assisted by reformer Martin Bucer of Strasbourg. The Confession was written in an attempt to overcome differences on the Lord’s Supper with Martin Luther…

Vitaly Ginzburg: Known as Sloika (“Layer Cake”), the design was refined by Ginzburg in 1949 through the substitution of lithium-6 deuteride for the liquid deuterium. When bombarded with neutrons, lithium-6 breeds tritium, which can fuse with deuterium to release more energy. Ginzburg and Sakharov’s design was tested on August…

Pride and Prejudice, romantic novel by Jane Austen, published anonymously in three volumes in 1813. A classic of English literature, written with incisive wit and superb character delineation, it centers on the burgeoning relationship between Elizabeth Bennet, the daughter of a country gentleman,

the Strokes: First Impressions of Earth (2006) featured more robust, polished production and greater songwriting ambition than the band’s earlier recordings but failed to command a similar level of fervour. After its release, the band members spent the next several years pursuing side projects, including Moretti’s well-received…

accounting: Cost of goods sold: …main inventory costing methods: (1) first-in, first-out (FIFO), (2) last-in, first-out (LIFO), or (3) average cost. The LIFO method is widely used in the United States, where it is also an acceptable costing method for income tax purposes; companies in most other countries measure inventory cost and the cost of…

Sherman Alexie: Literary career: …two more books of poetry—First Indian on the Moon and Old Shirts & New Skins—and The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven, a collection of interwoven stories that won the PEN/Hemingway Award for best first book of fiction.

Indochina wars: …wars are often called the French Indochina War and the Vietnam War (q.v.), or the First and Second Indochina wars. The latter conflict ended in April 1975.

ancient Egypt: The First Intermediate period: After the end of the 8th dynasty, the throne passed to kings from Heracleopolis, who made their native city the capital, although Memphis continued to be important. They were acknowledged throughout the country, but…

industrial design: Postmodern design and its aftermath: …École des Beaux-Arts and the First International Architecture Exhibition for the 1980 Venice Biennale, which took as its title and theme “The Presence of the Past.” For this show, contemporary architects were encouraged to create streetscapes that related to traditional architectural environments.

Benjamin Harrison: Presidency: Blaine, presided over the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, D.C. (1889–90), which established the International Union of American Republics (later called the Pan-American Union) for the exchange of cultural and scientific information. In addition, Blaine successfully resisted pressure from Germany and Great Britain to abandon…

comparative law: International efforts: …important event—the meeting of the First International Congress of Comparative Law in Paris in 1900. Experts from every part of Europe delivered papers and discussed the nature, aims, and general interest of comparative law. Particular emphasis was laid on its role in the preparation of a “common law for the…

history of logic: Other 19th-century logicians: …century culminated grandly with the First International Congress of Philosophy and the Second International Congress of Mathematics held consecutively in Paris in August 1900. The overlap between the two congresses was extensive and fortunate for the future of logic and philosophy. Peano, Alessandro Padoa, Burali-Forti, Schröder, Cantor, Dedekind, Frege, Felix…

Raoul Hausmann: …in 1920 helped organize the First International Dada Fair, a subverted version of an academic art exhibition. Works of art—defined as such by the Dadaists—were crammed into a small gallery, and all were for sale. Among the works Hausmann exhibited at the fair are some of his best known: a…

Antarctica: IGY and the Antarctic Treaty: …11 participating nations organized the First International Polar Year (1882–83). Most work was planned for the better-known Arctic, and, of the four geomagnetic and weather stations scheduled for Antarctic regions, only the German station on South Georgia materialized. The decision was made at that time to organize similar programs every…

First Interstate Bancorp, once one of the largest American multibank holding corporations. The corporation was formed in 1957 as Firstamerica Corporation and started operations in 1958 when it acquired all of the directly held shares of Transamerica Corporation’s stock in banks in which

intifada: The first intifada: The proximate causes of the first intifada were intensified Israeli land expropriation and settlement construction in the West Bank and Gaza Strip after the electoral victory of the right-wing Likud party in 1977; increasing Israeli repression in response to heightened Palestinian protests following…

intifada: The first intifada: The proximate causes of the first intifada were intensified Israeli land expropriation and settlement construction in the West Bank and Gaza Strip after the electoral victory of the right-wing Likud party in 1977; increasing Israeli repression in response to heightened Palestinian protests following…

Sean Connery: …Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), First Knight (1995), The Rock (1996), Dragonheart (1996), and Entrapment (1999). Connery officially retired from acting following his appearance in the film adaptation (2003) of the comic-book series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, though he went on to perform various voice roles.

Although the role of first lady of the United States, sometimes abbreviated FLOTUS, is not codified in law and has never been officially defined, American first ladies have played a prominent role in the political and social life of the country. Typically, the first lady has been the wife of the

first lady, wife of the president of the United States. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, she figures prominently in the political and social life of the nation. Representative of her husband on official and ceremonial occasions both at home and abroad,

Rosalynn Carter: Rosalynn wrote several books, including First Lady from Plains (1994; originally published 1984), which was widely praised as giving more insight into her husband’s administration than most of the books by his top advisers; Helping Someone with Mental Illness: A Compassionate Guide for Family, Friends, and Caregivers (1998, reissued 2000),…

Ella Fitzgerald was an American jazz singer who became world famous for the wide range and rare sweetness of her voice. She became an international legend during a career that spanned some six decades. As a child, Fitzgerald wanted to be a dancer, but when she panicked at an amateur contest in 1934

Gillian Anderson: Other TV work: The Fall, Sex Education, and The Crown: …the debut season (2022) of The First Lady, an anthology series about U.S. first ladies, she portrayed Eleanor Roosevelt.

first law of thermodynamics, thermodynamic relation stating that, within an isolated system, the total energy of the system is constant, even if energy has been converted from one form to another. This law is another way of stating the law of conservation of energy. It is one of four relations

Douglas Sirk: Films of the early to mid-1950s: …where he produced and directed The First Legion (1951), starring Charles Boyer, before signing with Universal, for which he continued to make films until he retired nearly a decade later.

In early 2011, amid a wave of popular protest in countries throughout the Middle East and North Africa, largely peaceful demonstrations against entrenched regimes brought quick transfers of power in Egypt and Tunisia. In Libya, however, an uprising against the four-decade rule of Muammar al-Qaddafi

Peter Ackroyd: …the Year Award), Chatterton (1987), First Light (1989), English Music (1992), The House of Doctor Dee (1993), The Trial of Elizabeth Cree: A Novel of the Limehouse Murders (1995), The Fall of Troy (2006), Three Brothers (2013), and Mr. Cadmus (2020). In 2009 Ackroyd also

Ian McEwan: …his first two short-story collections, First Love, Last Rites (1975; film 1997)—winner of a Somerset Maugham Award for writers under age 35—and In Between the Sheets (1978), both of which feature a bizarre cast of grotesques in disturbing tales of sexual aberrance, black comedy, and macabre obsession. His first novel,…

Damien Chazelle: Chazelle’s next film, First Man (2018), reteamed him with Gosling, who played astronaut Neil Armstrong as he prepares for the legendary space mission that will send him to the Moon. Chazelle received critical acclaim for his character-driven approach to the story. He then turned to television, codirecting the…

Isaac ben Solomon Luria: …and Adam Qadmon, the symbolic “primordial man,” who is the highest configuration of the divine light, is rebuilt. Man plays an important role in this process through various kawwanot used during prayer and through mystical intentions involving secret combinations of words, all of which is directed toward the restoration of…

First Battle of Bull Run, (July 21, 1861), in the American Civil War, the first of two engagements fought at a small stream named Bull Run, near Manassas in northern Virginia. (Civil War battles often had one name in the North, which was usually associated with a prominent nearby physical feature,

malacostracan: Size range and diversity of structure: The first and second maxillae are short, with variable numbers of inner biting plates (endites) and often with outer lobes (epipodites), but the palps are short or lacking.

First Men in the Moon, British science-fiction film, released in 1964, that was based on H.G. Wells’s novel of the same name. It blends the contemporary space race of the 1960s with a story about a Victorian-era expedition to the Moon. The film opens with a multinational lunar expedition sponsored

novel: Other types: Wells’s First Men in the Moon (1901). One may read examples of a departed category with pleasure and profit, but the category can no longer yield more than parody or pastiche.

Jovita Idár: Journalist and activist: …Texas, the Idár family organized El Primer Congreso Mexicanista (the First Mexican Congress), which was the beginning of the modern civil rights movement for Mexican Americans. The meeting brought together Mexican American men and women who wanted to work together to fight injustice, focusing on economic and educational inequality. Idár…

small arm: Standardized patterns and parts: …army musket, called the “Long Land,” which had a 46-inch (1,168-mm) barrel and a calibre, or bore diameter, of .75 inch (19 mm). The Long Land became popularly known in America as the first model Brown Bess musket. Fighting experience in the wilderness of North America during the Seven…

Walter Matthau: …The Bad News Bears (1976), First Monday in October (1981), Dennis the Menace (1993), and The Grass Harp (1995), the latter of which was directed by his son, Charlie Matthau. He was prominently featured as a hedonistic octogenarian in his last film, Hanging Up (2000), directed by Diane Keaton.

Moroccan crises: The resultant international panic, the First Moroccan Crisis, was resolved in January–April 1906 at the Algeciras Conference, where German and other national economic rights were upheld and where the French and Spanish were entrusted with the policing of Morocco.

the Five Ways: …begun with a first or prime mover that had not itself been moved or acted upon by any other agent. Aristotle sometimes called this prime mover “God.” Aquinas understood it as the God of Christianity.

given name, part of a personal name that distinguishes an individual from other members of a group, clan, or family. It is typically used in conjunction with a surname, or “family name,” which in many cases is inherited and held in common by members of a family. Scholars agree that the use of

Jean-Luc Godard: Later work and awards of Jean-Luc Godard: …films—Passion (1982), Prénom Carmen (1983; First Name: Carmen), and the highly controversial Je vous salue, Marie (1985; Hail Mary)—that served as personal statements on femininity, nature, and Christianity.

First National Bank of Boston, major American commercial bank with branch and representative offices in the United States and abroad. It is the principal subsidiary of the Bank of Boston Corporation

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission: Majority opinion: …in the court’s decision in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978). In addition, the law would allow the government to ban the political speech of media corporations, including newspapers—though such corporations were specifically exempted in the Michigan law upheld in Austin and in Section 203 of the BCRA.…

First National Bank of Chicago, major American commercial bank formed in 1863, leading subsidiary of First Chicago NBD Corporation, a holding

First National Bank of Minneapolis, major U.S. commercial bank founded in 1864, now the main subsidiary of First Bank System, Inc. (q.v.), a bank holding

James Stillman: …York’s National City Bank (now Citibank) made it one of the most powerful financial institutions in the United States.

Zambia: Economy: …planning—the Transitional Development Plan—preceding the First National Development Plan of 1966–71. This later plan, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, was largely implemented and generally successful (which was not true of subsequent plans).

History of film: Pre-World War I American cinema: …and Nicholas Schenck in 1919; First National Pictures, Inc., a circuit of independent exhibitors who established their own production facilities in Burbank, California, in 1922; Warner Brothers Pictures, Inc., founded by Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack Warner in 1923; and Columbia Pictures, Inc., incorporated in 1924 by Harry

Native American, member of any of the aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, although the term often connotes only those groups whose original territories were in present-day Canada and the United States. Pre-Columbian Americans used technology and material culture that included fire and the

Canada: Indigenous affairs: …National Indian Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations), while Métis and nonstatus Indians were represented by the Native Council of Canada. These and other organizations advocated policies including aboriginal rights (recognized in the Constitution Act [Canada Act] of 1982), improved education, and economic development. In 1983 a government report…

Gadsden flag, historical flag used by Commodore Esek Hopkins, the United States’ first naval commander in chief, as his personal ensign during the American Revolution (1775–83). The flag features a coiled rattlesnake above the words “Don’t Tread on Me” on a yellow background. The flag was one of

fuging tune: …American composers of the so-called First New England school during the period of the American Revolution (1775–83).

Sir Arthur Whitten Brown: …Alcock he made the record crossing of the Atlantic in a Vickers Vimy twin-engine biplane at an average speed of approximately 118 miles (193 km) per hour. Taking off from St. John’s, Nfld., at 4:13 pm Greenwich Mean Time on June 14, 1919, they landed 16 hours 12 minutes later…

Battle of the First of June, the first great naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars, fought on June 1, 1794, between the French and the British in the Atlantic Ocean about 430 miles (690 km) west of the Breton island of Ouessant (Ushant). The battle arose out of an attempt by the British

First Opium War, armed conflict in 1839–42 between China’s Qing dynasty and Britain over the dynasty’s restrictions on British trade and, more broadly, Britain’s dissatisfaction with its diplomatic relationship with the Qing. The catalyst for the conflict was the dynasty’s efforts to suppress the

Three Places in New England, composition for orchestra by American composer Charles Ives, completed and much revised in the first decades of the 20th century and published in its best-known version in 1935. Its three movements portray scenes from the composer’s native New England and feature much

magic: …Witchcraft by Reginald Scot and The First Part of Clever and Pleasant Inventions by Jean Prevost, both published in 1584, in London and Lyons, respectively, are the seminal texts on magic. These early descriptions reflect performances of conjurers that probably took place decades or even hundreds of years before they…

Partitions of Poland, (1772, 1793, 1795), three territorial divisions of Poland, perpetrated by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, by which Poland’s size was progressively reduced until, after the final partition, the state of Poland ceased to exist. The First Partition occurred after Russia became

alternative vote: …the British electoral system from first-past-the-post (FPTP) in favour of AV; on May 5, 2011, however, more than two-thirds of British voters rejected AV.

ancient Greek civilization: Friction between Athens and Corinth: …what modern scholars call the First Peloponnesian War.

Persian Gulf War, (1990–91), international conflict that was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, ordered the invasion and occupation of Kuwait with the apparent aim of acquiring that nation’s large oil reserves, canceling a large debt Iraq owed

Richard Flanagan: Novels: Flanagan’s next novel, First Person (2017), concerned a struggling writer who is hired to ghostwrite a conman’s memoir. In The Living Sea of Walking Dreams (2020), three siblings argue over medical treatment for their dying mother while the climate crisis worsens. The work, which includes elements of surrealism,…

Haruki Murakami: Works: …Men Without Women (2017), and First Person Singular (2021) translate Murakami’s stories into English. His memoir, Hashiru koto ni tsuite kataru toki ni boku no kataru koto (2007; What I Talk About When I Talk About Running), centers on his love for marathon running.

Ko Un: …Tree Way Tavern (2006); and First Person Sorrowful (2012). Ko’s work drew the attention of prominent American poets, including Allen Ginsberg, Robert Hass, and Gary Snyder, all of whom contributed forewords to these books. Ko also published novels, drama, and literary criticism.

Demosthenes: Leader of the democratic faction: …against Philip, the so-called “First Philippic,” that established him as the leader of the opposition to Macedonian imperial ambitions. For the next 29 years Demosthenes never wavered; as Plutarch says, “The object which he chose for himself in the commonwealth was noble and just, the defense of the Grecians…

Aristotle: Physics and metaphysics of Aristotle: …metaphysics: he calls it “first philosophy” and defines it as the discipline that studies “being as being.”

Western painting: Pagan Roman paintings: …were decorated in a so-called Incrustation, or First, style; that is, the imitation in painted stucco of veneers, or crustae (“slabs”), of coloured marbles. But in the second half of the 1st century bc, there suddenly appeared in Rome and in the Campanian cities (the most famous of which is…

ballet position: In the first position, the heels are together, with toes turned out until the feet are in a straight line. In the second position, the feet are in a parallel line, separated by a distance of about 12 inches (30 cm) and both turned outward, with the…

Book of Common Prayer: The First Prayer Book, enacted by the first Act of Uniformity of Edward VI in 1549, was prepared primarily by Thomas Cranmer, who became archbishop of Canterbury in 1533. It was viewed as a compromise between old and new ideas and was in places diplomatically…

history of logic: Syllogisms: …it occurs is called the major premise. The subject of the conclusion is called the minor term and the premise in which it occurs is called the minor premise. This way of describing major and minor terms conforms to Aristotle’s actual practice and was proposed as a definition by the…

Wallace K. Harrison: His First Presbyterian Church, Stamford, Conn., is considered an outstanding example of modern church design. Shaped like a fish, the interior is flooded with coloured light from large expanses of stained glass.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Structure of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: …of the church are the First Presidency (the church president and two councillors), the Council of the Twelve Apostles, the First Quorum of Seventy, and the presiding bishop and two councillors, who manage the church’s property and welfare programs. All are “sustained in office” by the regular and now-ritualized vote…

Western philosophy: Monistic cosmologies: Thus, the term arche, which originally simply meant “beginning,” acquired the new meaning of “principle,” a term that henceforth played an enormous role in philosophy down to the present. This concept of a principle that remains the same through many transmutations is, furthermore, the presupposition of the idea…

Herbert Spencer: Life and works: …Principles of Psychology, volumes on first principles and on biology, sociology, and morality. First Principles was published in 1862, and between then and 1896, when the third volume of The Principles of Sociology appeared, the task was completed. In order to prepare the ground for The Principles of Sociology, Spencer…

Ireland: Integration in Europe: Lemass and Whitaker implemented the First Programme for Economic Expansion (1958–63), under which the principle of protection was abandoned and foreign investment encouraged, while a targeted growth rate of 2 percent resulted in 4 percent actual growth. This prosperity brought profound social and cultural changes to what had been one…

Mao Zedong: Early years: Mao eventually graduated from the First Provincial Normal School in Changsha in 1918. While officially an institution of secondary level rather than of higher education, the normal school offered a high standard of instruction in Chinese history, literature, and philosophy as well as in Western ideas. While at the school,…

Qin tomb, major Chinese archaeological site near the ancient capital city of Chang’an, Shaanxi sheng (province), China, now near the modern city of Xi’an. It is the burial place of the first sovereign emperor, Shihuangdi of the Qin dynasty (221–207 bce), who unified the empire, began construction

Moon: Principal characteristics of the Earth-Moon system: …eight phases: new, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning gibbous, last quarter, and waning crescent. New moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun, and thus the side of the Moon that is in shadow faces Earth. Full moon occurs when the Moon is on…

Red Scare: First Red Scare (1917–20): The first Red Scare began toward the end of World War I. It was fueled in part by a surge in activity among organized labour alongside anxiety stemming from the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which Vladimir Lenin’s Russian Social-Democratic Workers’…

Ethan Hawke: …counsels a radical environmentalist in First Reformed (2017).

Thomas Wentworth Higginson: …Higginson became pastor of the First Religious Society of Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he preached a social gospel too liberal even for Unitarians. Two years later his progressive views on temperance, women’s rights, labour, and slavery caused him to lose his congregation.

United States: The Federalist administration and the formation of parties: This plan met strong opposition from the many who had sold their securities at great discount during the postwar depression and from Southern states, which had repudiated their debts and did not want to be taxed to pay other states’ debts. A compromise in Congress was…

Burundi: The First and Second republics: …the formal proclamation of the First Republic (with Micombero as president), the last obstacle in the path of Tutsi domination was removed.

Madagascar: The First Republic: The opposition regrouped under the name Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (Antokon’ny Kongresin’ny Fahaleovantenan’i Madagasikara; AKFM), which included both Protestant Merina dissidents and communists. Antananarivo was the party’s stronghold; it also had some support in the provinces but, owing to the…

South Korea: The First Republic: The First Republic, established in August 1948, adopted a presidential system, and Syngman Rhee was subsequently elected its first president. South Korea also adopted a National Security Law, which effectively prohibited groups that opposed the state or expressions of support for North Korea.…

Louis XVI: Attempt to flee the country: … and the proclamation of the First French Republic on September 21. In November, proof of Louis XVI’s secret dealings with Mirabeau and of his counterrevolutionary intrigues with the foreigners was found in a secret cupboard in the Tuileries. On December 3 it was decided that Louis, who together with his…

Portugal: The First Republic, 1910–26: The new regime formed a provisional government under the presidency of Teófilo Braga, a well-known writer. A new electoral law was issued giving the vote only to a restricted number of adult males. The provisional government presided over the election of a…

anticlericalism: Spain: The first Spanish Republic (1873) enacted some anticlerical laws, but these were repealed or disregarded when the monarchy was restored in 1875. During an anticlerical outbreak in 1909, mobs burned churches and attacked priests. As a pacification measure, religious orders were restricted in number and taxes…