Felix Gonzalez-Torres: Early life, education, and Group Material: …a New York-based artists’ collaborative, Group Material. In their highly political staged exhibitions, the collaborative examined such issues as consumerism, democracy, and the relationship of artist, art object, and viewer. These concerns continued to engage Gonzalez-Torres in his individual work as well.

collective behavior: Interaction theories: …for their concept of “group mind,” and for their apparent assumption that collective behavior makes people do things to which they are not predisposed. Allport insisted instead that collective behavior involves merely a group of people doing what they previously wanted to do but for which they lacked the…

Group of 77 (G-77), loose alliance of developing countries established on June 15, 1964. The name of the group derives from the 77 original signatories to the Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in

Thomas Hardy: Middle period: His subsequent short-story collections are A Group of Noble Dames (1891), Life’s Little Ironies (1894), and A Changed Man (1913). Hardy’s short novel The Well-Beloved (serialized 1892, revised for volume publication 1897) displays a hostility to marriage that was related to increasing frictions within his own marriage.

Paul Volcker: …board of trustees of the Group of Thirty (G-30), a private nonprofit group of academics and financiers dedicated to enhancing the understanding of international financial, economic, and policy issues.

Group Portrait with Lady, novel by Heinrich Böll, published in German in 1971 as Gruppenbild mit Dame. The novel, a sweeping portrayal of German life from World War I until the early 1970s, was cited by the Nobel Prize committee when it awarded Böll the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. The

medicine: Administration of primary health care: …and specialization is represented by group practice, the members of which partially or fully specialize. One or more may be general practitioners, and one may be a surgeon, a second an obstetrician, a third a pediatrician, and a fourth an internist. In isolated communities group practice may be a satisfactory…

propaganda: Modern research and the evolution of current theories: Sigmund Freud’s Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1922) was particularly relevant to the study of leaders, propagandists, and followers, as were Walter Lippmann’s Public Opinion (1922) and The Phantom Public (1925).

group therapy, the use of group discussion and other group activities in treatment of psychological disorders. Despite widespread recognition that the groups to which a person belongs may affect his attitudes and behaviour, the traditional medical emphasis on the privacy of the doctor–patient

group selection, in biology, a type of natural selection that acts collectively on all members of a given group. Group selection may also be defined as selection in which traits evolve according to the fitness (survival and reproductive success) of groups or, mathematically, as selection in which

Group Theatre, company of stage craftsmen founded in 1931 in New York City by a former Theatre Guild member, Harold Clurman, in association with the directors Cheryl Crawford and Lee Strasberg, for the purpose of presenting American plays of social significance. Embracing Konstantin Stanislavsky’s

group theory, in modern algebra, the study of groups, which are systems consisting of a set of elements and a binary operation that can be applied to two elements of the set, which together satisfy certain axioms. These require that the group be closed under the operation (the combination of any

group therapy, the use of group discussion and other group activities in treatment of psychological disorders. Despite widespread recognition that the groups to which a person belongs may affect his attitudes and behaviour, the traditional medical emphasis on the privacy of the doctor–patient

nitrogen group element, any of the chemical elements that constitute Group 15 (Va) of the periodic table. The group consists of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), and moscovium (Mc). The elements share certain general similarities in chemical behaviour, though

wave: Physical characteristics of surface waves: …with the wave, termed the group velocity. For nondispersive long waves the two are equal, whereas for surface gravity waves in deep water the group velocity is only half the phase speed. Thus, in a train of waves spreading out over a pond after a sudden disturbance at a point,…

oxygen group element, any of the six chemical elements making up Group 16 (VIa) of the periodic classification—namely, oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), polonium (Po), and livermorium (Lv). A relationship between the first three members of the group was recognized as early as

halogen, any of the six nonmetallic elements that constitute Group 17 (Group VIIa) of the periodic table. The halogen elements are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts). They were given the name halogen, from the Greek roots hal- (“salt”) and -gen

social group, any set of human beings who either are, recently have been, or anticipate being in some kind of interrelation. The term group, or social group, has been used to designate many kinds of aggregations of humans. Aggregations of two members and aggregations that include the total

Mercy Otis Warren: …and in 1775 Warren published The Group, a satire conjecturing what would happen if the British king abrogated the Massachusetts charter of rights. The anonymously published prose dramas The Blockheads (1776) and The Motley Assembly (1779), no less acerbic, are also attributed to her.

Candice Bergen: …a lesbian in Sidney Lumet’s The Group (1966), based on a novel by Mary McCarthy. That same year, she appeared in The Sand Pebbles, playing an American missionary with whom a U.S. naval engineer (Steve McQueen) falls in love. Besides performing in movies during the 1960s, Bergen worked as a…

The Group, novel by Mary McCarthy, published in 1963, that chronicles the lives of eight Vassar College friends from their graduation in 1933 to the funeral of Kay Strong, the protagonist, in 1940. The women believe that their superior education has given them control over their lives and the

lighthouse: Identification: These are known as group-flashing lights. In another category, “occulting” lights are normally on and momentarily extinguished, with short eclipses interrupting longer periods of light. Analogous to the flashing mode are occulting and group-occulting characters. A special class of light is the isophase, which alternates eclipses and flashes of…

musical performance: The 20th century and beyond: …performer—who might be called the group-virtuoso. Teams or groups of such performers subsequently sprang up everywhere. Often centred on a living composer or the university where he or she taught, they essentially functioned as partners in the compositional process, realizing the work rather than interpreting it. Such performers were very…

Op art: …were shared by the French Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuel (“Group for Research in the Visual Arts”) and by the Venezuelan-born artist Jesús Rafael Soto. These artists made large-scale sculptures that employed light and motors, as well as sculptural materials, to create the illusion of movement in space that is…

Georges Seurat: …in the foundation of the Groupe des Artistes Indépendants, an association “with neither jury nor prizes,” where he showed his Bathers in June.

François Duvalier: …and became a member of Le Groupe des Griots, a circle of writers who embraced black nationalism and voodoo as the key sources of Haitian culture.

Belgian literature: Between World Wars I and II: …others made up the “Groupe du lundi” (1936–39), named after their Monday meetings in Brussels. In 1937 this group issued a literary manifesto, rejecting Belgian regionalism and nationalism in favour of French literature. Jean Ray was a pioneer of fantastic literature in Belgium. Somewhat later, Georges Simenon imbued the…

Armed Islamic Group, Algerian militant group. It was formed in 1992 after the government nullified the likely victory of the Islamic Salvation Front in 1991 legislative elections and was fueled by the repatriation of numerous Algerian Islamists who had fought in the Afghan War (1978–92). The GIA

PSA Group, major French automotive manufacturer and holding company that was formed from the merger of Peugeot and Citroën in 1976. It was one of Europe’s largest carmakers. Its headquarters were in Paris. Peugeot’s origins trace to 1810, when brothers Jean-Pierre II and Jean-Frédéric Peugeot

al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghrib (AQIM), Algeria-based Islamic militant group, active in North Africa and the Sahel region. The organization was founded as the GSPC in 1998 by a former member of the Armed Islamic Group (Groupe Islamique Armé; GIA), an Islamic militant group that participated in

Total SA, French oil company that ranks as one of the world’s major petroleum corporations. It engages in the exploration, refining, transport, and marketing of petroleum and petrochemical products. The firm also pursues business interests in coal mining, nuclear energy, and alternative energy

grouper, any of numerous species of large-mouthed heavy-bodied fishes of the family Serranidae (order Perciformes), many belonging to the genera Epinephelus and Mycteroperca. Groupers are widely distributed in warm seas and are often dully coloured in greens or browns, but a number are brighter,

Groupon, American e-commerce company that offers deep discounts, usually 50–90 percent, for popular products and services by using a group discount model. The company’s name is a portmanteau of group and coupon. Groupon was cofounded by Andrew Mason, Eric Lefkofsky, and Brad Keywell in 2008.

Barbara Hepworth: …produced an experimental series called Groups, clusters of small anthropomorphic forms in marble so thin that their translucence creates a magical sense of inner life. In the next decade she was commissioned to do a number of sculptures approximately 20 feet (6 metres) high. Among the more successful of her…

groupthink, mode of thinking in which individual members of small cohesive groups tend to accept a viewpoint or conclusion that represents a perceived group consensus, whether or not the group members believe it to be valid, correct, or optimal. Groupthink reduces the efficiency of collective

collaborative software, type of computer program that shares data between computers for processing. In particular, several programs have been written to harness the vast number of computers connected to the Internet. Rather than run a screen saver program when idle, these computers can run software

grouse, any of a number of game birds in the family Tetraonidae (order Galliformes). In addition to species called grouse, the group includes several birds known by particular names, such as the capercaillie and prairie chicken (see below) and the ptarmigan. The order Columbiformes contains the

pygmy grasshopper, (family Tetrigidae), any of about 1,400 species of insects (order Orthoptera) that are small (about 15 mm [0.6 inch] long), brown, gray, or moss-green, and related to true grasshoppers. However, the pygmy grasshopper has the forewings either reduced to small pads or absent. In

backswimmer: The grousewinged backswimmer, N. undulata, found in North America, can often be seen swimming under the ice during the winter.

dam: Construction techniques: …metres (740 feet) as a grout curtain. A corrugated blanket of clay extends upstream within the dam from the base of the core. Within the upstream and downstream cofferdams, partly of rockfill, much of the filling is of compacted sand. Filter layers separate the cofferdam filler from the outer layers…

tunnels and underground excavations: Shield tunnels: …the void, then injecting cement grout (sand-cement-water mixture).

Title IX: …victory in the 1984 lawsuit Grove City v. Bell, the decision of which stated that Title IX affected only those programs that directly receive federal assistance; this eliminated the clause’s applicability to athletics programs. In 1988, however, the Civil Rights Restoration Act overrode Grove City v. Bell, stating that Title…

Lihue: Grove Farm Homestead Museum, originally built in 1864 and opened as a living museum in 1978, is located in the former plantation home of a sugar-mill owner. Lihue is the seat of Kauai Community College (founded 1928 as Kalaheo Vocational School), part of the University…

Andrew Grove was a Hungarian-born American businessman who is widely credited with being the driving force behind the enormous success of semiconductor computer circuit manufacturer Intel, for which he served as president (1979–97), CEO (1987–98), and chairman (1997–2005). A Tumultuous Childhood

Frederick Philip Grove was a Canadian novelist whose fame rests on sombre naturalistic works that deal frankly and realistically with pioneer life on the Canadian prairies. Grove grew up in Sweden, travelled widely in Europe as a youth, and attended European universities. On a visit to Canada in

Lefty Grove was an American professional baseball player, one of the greatest left-handed pitchers in history. He grew up in a mining town and worked odd jobs when his formal education ended after the eighth grade. Grove did not play organized baseball until age 19. He began his professional career

Lefty Grove was an American professional baseball player, one of the greatest left-handed pitchers in history. He grew up in a mining town and worked odd jobs when his formal education ended after the eighth grade. Grove did not play organized baseball until age 19. He began his professional career

Sir George Grove was an English writer on music famous for his multivolume Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Grove began his career as a civil engineer and became secretary to the Society of Arts in 1850 and to the Crystal Palace in 1852. He collaborated with William Smith in his Dictionary of the

Sir William Robert Grove was a British physicist and a justice of Britain’s High Court (from 1880), who built the first fuel cell in 1842 and first offered proof of the thermal dissociation of atoms within a molecule. Grove was educated by private tutors and then at Brasenose College, Oxford, and

Allan Nevins: …two Pulitzer Prize-winning historical biographies: Grover Cleveland, A Study in Courage (1932) and Hamilton Fish, The Inner History of the Grant Administration (1936). In 1948 he inaugurated the oral history movement in the United States, establishing at Columbia a project for preserving on tape interviews with notable figures whose views…

Second Battle of Bull Run: The first day: Cuvier Grover’s brigade of Hooker’s division. Grover then made a fourth assault but was driven back with terrible loss. The last assault, delivered by two divisions under Maj. Gen. Phil Kearny and Brig. Gen. Isaac Stevens, drove the Confederate left out of its position; a…

Leslie Richard Groves was an American army officer in charge of the Manhattan Engineer District (MED)—or, as it is commonly known, the Manhattan Project—which oversaw all aspects of scientific research, production, and security for the invention of the atomic bomb. Groves was the son of an army

Ross Bleckner: His Growing Grass (1987), an oil-on-linen painting measuring 108 by 72 inches (2.7 by 1.8 metres), is representative of his Stripes series of paintings made in the 1980s; in it a dark blue field forms a background for equally spaced vertical lines in shades of green,…

Television in the United States: Demographic divergence: Cosby Show, Family Ties, and Growing Pains (ABC, 1985–92) remained on the air into the 1990s, while at the same time more “realistic” shows featuring lower-middle-class families such as Roseanne (ABC, 1988–97), The Simpsons (Fox, begun 1989), Married…with Children (Fox, 1987–97), and Grace Under

Mary J. Blige: Music career: …album—her ninth total career Grammy—for Growing Pains. Stronger with Each Tear (2009) was criticized for its overreliance on guest vocalists and Auto-Tune technology, but Blige rebounded in convincing fashion with My Life II…The Journey Continues (Act I) (2011), which plays to her strengths, balancing soulful ballads with catchy dance tunes…

Daphne du Maurier: She published an autobiography, Growing Pains, in 1977; the collection The Rendezvous and Other Stories in 1980; and a literary reminiscence, The Rebecca Notebook and Other Memories, in 1981.

Fay Weldon: …May (1989), Darcy’s Utopia (1990), Growing Rich (1992), and Affliction (1993; U.S. title Trouble). Weldon’s other works included Splitting (1995), a novel about a recently divorced woman’s attempts to reconstruct herself and unite the conflicting personalities and voices in her head; Wicked Women: A Collection of Short Stories (1995); and…

growing season, period of the year during which growing conditions for indigenous vegetation and cultivated crops are most favourable. It usually becomes shorter as distance from the Equator increases. In equatorial and tropical regions the growing season ordinarily lasts all year, whereas in

Higuchi Ichiyō: …and her masterpiece, Takekurabe (1895; Growing Up), a delicate story of children being reared on the fringes of the pleasure district.

Russell Baker: Baker’s Growing Up (1982), which recalls his peripatetic childhood, won the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for biography. A sequel, The Good Times, was published in 1989. Baker’s other works include An American in Washington (1961), No Cause for Panic (1964), Poor Russell’s Almanac (1972), and further collections…

Charles Spurgeon Johnson: In Growing Up in the Black Belt (1941), Johnson denied the common assertion that U.S. race relations constitute a true caste system; he pointed out that the status of blacks in American society did not have universal acquiescence or a religious basis. Among his other books…

homeschooling: Main theories, theorists, and methods: …the curriculum, and he founded Growing Without Schooling (1977–2001), the first magazine about homeschooling, to share ideas and accounts of families engaged in the practice. Holt coined the word unschooling to describe learning that did not have to take place at home and did not require the school’s teaching and…

clarence, a horse-drawn, four-wheeled coupé that was named in honour of the Duke of Clarence and first introduced in 1840 in London. The body held two seats facing one another and could transport four people in comfort. The carriage was suspended most often on large elliptic springs between two

Salma Hayek: …Chris Rock in the comedy Grown Ups (2010), Hayek portrayed a ruthless drug kingpin in Oliver Stone’s Savages (2012) and the love interest for an aspiring mixed martial artist in the comedy Here Comes the Boom (2012). Hayek then controversially played a woman who must use violence to extract herself…

Kevin James: Film roles: Paul Blart: Mall Cop, Grown Ups, and Becky: …comedies Grown Ups (2010) and Grown Ups 2 (2013) and was the lead in Zookeeper (2011), Here Comes the Boom (2012), and True Memoirs of an International Assassin (2016).

Halle Bailey: Career: …respectively, in the comedy series Grown-ish (2018–22), a spinoff of the sitcom Black-ish (2014–22). In that same year, Chloe x Halle released their first full-length studio album, The Kids Are Alright, which features the songs “Grown,” the theme song for Grown-ish, and “Warrior,” which appears on the soundtrack of the…

growth, the increases in cell size and number that take place during the life history of an organism. Growth is seldom random. Rather, it occurs according to a plan that eventually determines the size and shape of the individual. Growth may be restricted to special regions of the organism, such as

vitamin: Animal assay: In a growth assay, the rat, chick, dog (used specifically for niacin), and guinea pig (used specifically for vitamin C) usually are used. One criterion used in a vitamin assay is increase in body weight in response to different amounts of a specific vitamin in the diet.…

human nervous system: Neuronal development: …growing tips of axons (called growth cones) apparently recognize and respond to various molecular signals, which guide axons and nerve branches to their appropriate targets and eliminate those that try to synapse with inappropriate targets. Once a synaptic connection has been established, a target cell releases a trophic factor (e.g.,…

growth curve, in biology, a curve in graph form that shows the change in the number of cells (or single-celled organisms) in an experimental culture at different times. Growth curves are also common tools in ecological studies; they are used to track the rise and fall of populations of plants,

liger: …liger’s large size, or “growth dysplasia,” results from the absence of certain growth-limiting genes. Female lions mate with several male lions throughout their lives, so the genes of a male lion are adapted to maximize the growth of his offspring, since his offspring may be required to compete with…

economic growth, the process by which a nation’s wealth increases over time. Although the term is often used in discussions of short-term economic performance, in the context of economic theory it generally refers to an increase in wealth over an extended period. (Read Milton Friedman’s Britannica

growth factor, any of a group of proteins that stimulate the growth of specific tissues. Growth factors play an important role in promoting cellular differentiation and cell division, and they occur in a wide range of organisms, including insects, amphibians, humans, and plants. When investigators

growth hormone (GH), peptide hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It stimulates the growth of essentially all tissues of the body, including bone. GH is synthesized and secreted by anterior pituitary cells called somatotrophs, which release between one and two milligrams of

growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), a large peptide hormone that exists in several forms that differ from one another only in the number of amino acids, which can vary from 37 to 44. Unlike other neurohormones (substances produced by specialized cells typical of the nervous system), GHRH is

growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), a large peptide hormone that exists in several forms that differ from one another only in the number of amino acids, which can vary from 37 to 44. Unlike other neurohormones (substances produced by specialized cells typical of the nervous system), GHRH is

malformation: Exaggerated growth: …participate directly as an essential growth-regulating system in all higher plant species. The gibberellins of either fungal or higher plant origin stimulate the normal development of certain genetic dwarfs of maize and peas, which cannot themselves produce the gibberellins in amounts sufficient for their normal development.

growth medium, solution freed of all microorganisms by sterilization (usually in an autoclave, where it undergoes heating under pressure for a specific time) and containing the substances required for the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoans, algae, and fungi. The medium may be

William Cunningham: His The Growth of English Industry and Commerce (1882; later expanded to 3 volumes), one of the first systematic economic histories of England, became a standard reference work.

H. Munro Chadwick: …collaboration with his wife, Nora, The Growth of Literature, 3 vol. (1932–40), are his most important works. The first two are valuable for the light that they throw on the early history of the Anglo-Saxons. The third shows Chadwick developing a method of comparative literature and, by comparison of Greek…

Gustav Stresemann: Youth and education: …doctorate with a dissertation entitled “The Growth of the Berlin Bottled-Beer Industry.” The subject of his study, based on his knowledge of his father’s business and dealing with the decline of a sector of small business as a result of competition from giant industry, was characteristic of his origins as…

Kurt Koffka: …Grundlagen der psychischen Entwicklung (1921; The Growth of the Mind), applied the Gestalt viewpoint to child psychology and argued that infants initially experience organized wholes in the barely differentiated world about them.

geomagnetic field: Growth phase: …quiescent phase is called the growth phase of the substorm.

malformation: Exaggerated growth: …participate directly as an essential growth-regulating system in all higher plant species. The gibberellins of either fungal or higher plant origin stimulate the normal development of certain genetic dwarfs of maize and peas, which cannot themselves produce the gibberellins in amounts sufficient for their normal development.

malformation: Exaggerated growth: …participate directly as an essential growth-regulating system in all higher plant species. The gibberellins of either fungal or higher plant origin stimulate the normal development of certain genetic dwarfs of maize and peas, which cannot themselves produce the gibberellins in amounts sufficient for their normal development.

scale: …in shape, and they exhibit growth rings. Ctenoid scales resemble cycloid scales but have comblike teeth on their overlapping edge.

growth ring, in a cross section of the stem of a woody plant, the increment of wood added during a single growth period. In temperate regions the growth period is usually one year, in which case the growth ring may be called an “annual ring.” In tropical regions, growth rings may not be discernible

growth stock, stock whose market value is expected to increase at a faster-than-average rate, usually because the issuing company is part of an expanding industry or because it has strong growth characteristics (e.g., an active and successful research and development department, an array of new

sedimentary rock: Types: Growth structures in sedimentary rocks are in situ features that accumulate largely as the result of organic buildups within otherwise horizontal or nearly flat-lying strata. Reefs and stromatolites are two common varieties of such growth structures.

South Africa: Economy of South Africa: …government created a five-year plan—Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR)—that focused on privatization and the removal of exchange controls. GEAR was only moderately successful in achieving some of its goals but was hailed by some as laying an important foundation for future economic progress. The government also implemented new laws…

A Coruña, city, capital of A Coruña provincia (province), in the comunidad autónoma (autonomous community) of Galicia, in extreme northwestern Spain. It lies on an inlet facing the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Mero River. Under the Romans, A Coruña was the port of Brigantium, but its present

Romania: The seizure of power: …government led by the fellow-traveler Petru Groza on March 6.

Grozny, city and capital of the republic of Chechnya, Russia. It lies along the Sunzha River at the foot of the Sunzha Range of the Caucasus. Grozny was founded in 1818 as a fortress; the writers Leo Tolstoy and Mikhail Lermontov served there. The presence of local oil deposits was known from 1823,

Grozny, city and capital of the republic of Chechnya, Russia. It lies along the Sunzha River at the foot of the Sunzha Range of the Caucasus. Grozny was founded in 1818 as a fortress; the writers Leo Tolstoy and Mikhail Lermontov served there. The presence of local oil deposits was known from 1823,

GRU, (Russian: Chief Intelligence Office), Soviet military intelligence organization. It had no formal connection to the KGB, the Soviet political police and security agency, though Western intelligence authorities believed that the KGB had agents within the

maggot, soft-bodied grub that is the larva of many dipterous flies. About half of fly species produce larvae that would be categorized as maggots; other flies beget more specialized and distinct larvae. Of the fly species with maggots, the larval form persists through several stages of their life

Grub Street, the world of literary hacks, or mediocre, needy writers who write for hire. The term originated in the 18th century and was frequently used by writers. There was even a Grub-Street Journal. According to Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary, Grub Street was “originally the name of a street

mahasiddha, in the Tantric, or esoteric, traditions of India and Tibet, a person who, by the practice of meditative disciplines, has attained siddha (miraculous powers); a great magician. Both the Shaivites (followers of Shiva) of Hindu India and the Tantric Buddhists of Tibet preserve legends of

Cornales: Other families: …with a single genus, are Grubbiaceae and Curtisiaceae. Grubbia (three species) is the single genus of Grubbiaceae and features heathlike shrubs in southern South Africa. Curtisia has a single species of southern African tree that is useful as a timber source (assagai wood) for furniture and other small construction.

Cornales: Other families: …with a single genus, are Grubbiaceae and Curtisiaceae. Grubbia (three species) is the single genus of Grubbiaceae and features heathlike shrubs in southern South Africa. Curtisia has a single species of southern African tree that is useful as a timber source (assagai wood) for furniture and other small construction.