gauge, in railroad transportation, the width between the inside faces of running rails. Because the cost of construction and operation of a rail line is greater or less depending on the gauge, much controversy has surrounded decisions in respect to it, and a proliferation of gauges has developed

gauge, a measure of the bore of a shotgun. See

gauge: Gauge blocks, also known as Johannsson blocks, after their inventor, came into significant industrial use during World War I. They are small steel blocks, usually rectangular, with two exceptionally flat surfaces parallel to each other and a specified distance apart. They are sold as sets of blocks that can be…

subatomic particle: Finding the messenger particles: In addition to the Higgs boson, or bosons, electroweak theory also predicts the existence of an electrically neutral carrier for the weak force. This neutral carrier, called the Z0, should mediate the neutral current interactions—weak interactions in which electric charge is not transferred…

gauge theory, class of quantum field theory, a mathematical theory involving both quantum mechanics and Einstein’s special theory of relativity that is commonly used to describe subatomic particles and their associated wave fields. In a gauge theory there is a group of transformations of the field

gauge theory: This condition, called gauge invariance, gives the theory a certain symmetry, which governs its equations. In short, the structure of the group of gauge transformations in a particular gauge theory entails general restrictions on the way in which the field described by that theory can interact with other…

materials testing: Static tension and compression tests: …the test section (called the gauge length) is measured at different loads with a device called an extensometer; these measurements are used to compute strain.

pressure gauge: …pressures, is known as the gauge pressure. If the lower of the pressures is the pressure of the atmosphere, the total, or absolute, pressure is the sum of the gauge and atmospheric pressures.

subatomic particle: Field theory: …exhibit what is known as gauge symmetry. Put simply, this means that certain changes can be made that do not affect the basic structure of the field. It also implies that the relevant physical laws are the same in different regions of space and time.

gauge theory, class of quantum field theory, a mathematical theory involving both quantum mechanics and Einstein’s special theory of relativity that is commonly used to describe subatomic particles and their associated wave fields. In a gauge theory there is a group of transformations of the field

gauge theory: …of the field variables (gauge transformations) that leaves the basic physics of the quantum field unchanged. This condition, called gauge invariance, gives the theory a certain symmetry, which governs its equations. In short, the structure of the group of gauge transformations in a particular gauge theory entails general restrictions…

gauging station, site on a stream, canal, lake, or reservoir where systematic observations of gauge height (water level) or discharge are obtained. From the continuous records obtained at these stations, hydrologists make predictions and decisions concerning water level, flood activity and control,

William Gaugler was an American fencing master. He was one of the most prominent and respected students of the great Italian fencer Aldo Nadi. In 1979, Gaugler established a fencing master’s training program at San José State University in California, where he also taught as a member of the

Paul Gauguin was a French painter, printmaker, and sculptor who sought to achieve a “primitive” expression of spiritual and emotional states in his work. The artist, whose work has been categorized as Post-Impressionist, Synthetist, and Symbolist, is particularly well known for his creative

Paul Gauguin was a French painter, printmaker, and sculptor who sought to achieve a “primitive” expression of spiritual and emotional states in his work. The artist, whose work has been categorized as Post-Impressionist, Synthetist, and Symbolist, is particularly well known for his creative

Guwahati, city, western Assam state, northeastern India. It lies along the Brahmaputra River (there bridged) and is picturesquely situated with an amphitheatre of wooded hills to the south. Guwahati was the capital of the Hindu kingdom of Kamarupa (under the name of Pragjyotisa) about 400 ce. In

France: Ethnic groups: …known to the Romans as Gauls, spread from central Europe in the period 500 bce–500 ce to provide France with a major component of its population, especially in the centre and west. At the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a powerful penetration of Germanic (Teutonic) peoples, especially in…

Gaul, the region inhabited by the ancient Gauls, comprising modern-day France and parts of Belgium, western Germany, and northern Italy. A Celtic people, the Gauls lived in an agricultural society divided into several tribes ruled by a landed class. A brief treatment of Gaul follows. For full

Narbonensis, ancient Roman province that lay between the Alps, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Cévennes Mountains. It comprised what is now southeastern France. The area first entered ancient history when the Greek colony of Massilia (modern Marseille) was founded about 600 bce. Roman armies first

Alternative for Germany: Nationalism and scandals: Another party leader, Alexander Gauland, has built on the nationalist language of former U.S. president Donald Trump: “It’s not always America First. Sometimes it’s Germany First.” At its election party in 2017 AfD members publicly sang the German national anthem, a relatively rare sight in modern Germany. These…

Gaul, the region inhabited by the ancient Gauls, comprising modern-day France and parts of Belgium, western Germany, and northern Italy. A Celtic people, the Gauls lived in an agricultural society divided into several tribes ruled by a landed class. A brief treatment of Gaul follows. For full

Führer: …in greater Germany) known as Gauleiter (“district leaders”).

Gaulish language, ancient Celtic language or languages spoken in western and central Europe and Asia Minor before about 500. Gaulish is attested by inscriptions from France and northern Italy and by names occurring in classical literature. Modern knowledge of the vocabulary and sounds of Gaulish is

Charles de Gaulle was a French soldier, writer, statesman, and architect of France’s Fifth Republic. De Gaulle was the second son of a Roman Catholic, patriotic, and nationalist upper-middle-class family. The family had produced historians and writers, and his father taught philosophy and

Charles de Gaulle was a French soldier, writer, statesman, and architect of France’s Fifth Republic. De Gaulle was the second son of a Roman Catholic, patriotic, and nationalist upper-middle-class family. The family had produced historians and writers, and his father taught philosophy and

Baciccio was a leading Roman Baroque painter of the second half of the 17th century. At Genoa, Baciccio was a student of Luciano Borzone, but he was also influenced by the works of Sir Anthony Van Dyck and Bernardo Strozzi. He moved to Rome about 1660, visiting Parma (1669) to study the frescoes of

Rally for the Republic, former French political party formed by Jacques Chirac in 1976 that presumed to be heir to the traditions of Charles de Gaulle. It was the direct successor to the Gaullist coalitions, operating under various names over the years, that had dominated the political life of the

Rally for the Republic, former French political party formed by Jacques Chirac in 1976 that presumed to be heir to the traditions of Charles de Gaulle. It was the direct successor to the Gaullist coalitions, operating under various names over the years, that had dominated the political life of the

Gaultheria, genus of about 135 species of upright or prostrate evergreen shrubs of the heath family. Gaultheria species are found in North and South America, Asia, the Malay Archipelago, Australia, and New Zealand. Several species are cultivated as ornamentals for their attractive foliage, and some

Gaultheria: Major species: Creeping snowberry (G. hispidula) is a mat-forming evergreen with small pointed leaves that give a spicy odor when crushed.

Gaultheria: Major species: Wintergreen (G. procumbens), also called checkerberry or teaberry, is a creeping shrub with white bell-shaped flowers, spicy red fruits, and aromatic shiny leaves.

Gaultheria: Major species: Salal (G. shallon), or lemonleaf in the floral industry, is a diffuse slender shrub of the Pacific Northwest; it grows 0.3–1.8 metres (1–6 feet) tall and has dark purple edible fruits.

Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de La Vérendrye was a French Canadian soldier, fur trader, and explorer whose exploits, little honoured during his lifetime, rank him as one of the greatest explorers of the Canadian West. Moreover, the string of trading posts he and his sons built in the course of

Denis Gaultier was a celebrated lute virtuoso whose style influenced the French school of harpsichord music. Gaultier came from a renowned family of lutenists. Little is known of his life except that he resided for many years in Paris. He was the last great representative of the Parisian school of

Denis Gaultier was a celebrated lute virtuoso whose style influenced the French school of harpsichord music. Gaultier came from a renowned family of lutenists. Little is known of his life except that he resided for many years in Paris. He was the last great representative of the Parisian school of

Jean Paul Gaultier is a French fashion designer whose iconoclastic collections in the late 20th and early 21st centuries celebrated androgyny, blended street styles with haute couture, and juxtaposed other seemingly contradictory cultural symbols. Throughout his career he strove not only to

Gozo, second largest of the Maltese islands (after the island of Malta), in the Mediterranean Sea, 3.25 miles (5.25 km) northwest of the nearest point of Malta. It is 9 miles long and 4.5 miles wide and has an area of 26 square miles (67 square km). It is also known as the “Island of the Three

Darius I: Ascent to monarchy: …that the usurper was actually Gaumata, a Magian, who had impersonated Bardiya after Bardiya had been murdered secretly by Cambyses. Darius therefore claimed that he was restoring the kingship to the rightful Achaemenid house. He himself, however, belonged to a collateral branch of the royal family, and, as his father…

Alice Guy-Blaché: …She soon thereafter became the Gaumont film company’s head of production, directing nearly all the Gaumont films made until 1905, when the company’s growth necessitated her hiring additional directors.

History of film: Early growth of the film industry: …Pictures, founded by the engineer-inventor Léon Gaumont in 1895. Though never more than one-fourth the size of Pathé, Gaumont followed the same pattern of expansion, manufacturing its own equipment and mass-producing films under a supervising director (through 1906, Alice Guy, the cinema’s first female director; afterward, Louis Feuillade). Like Pathé,…

Ganges River: Physiography: …is considered to be at Gaumukh, about 13 miles (21 km) southeast of Gangotri.

Mindon: …chief minister, the Kinwun Mingyi U Gaung, on a diplomatic mission to London, Paris, and Rome to secure international recognition of Myanmar’s status as an independent country and to appeal for restoration of its lost territory.

Gaunilo was a Benedictine monk of the Marmoutier Abbey near Tours, France, who opposed St. Anselm of Canterbury’s ontological argument for God’s existence. Gaunilo’s Liber pro insipiente (“In Defense of the Fool”) was a critique of the rationality of Anselm’s assertion that the concept of “that

Gaunilo was a Benedictine monk of the Marmoutier Abbey near Tours, France, who opposed St. Anselm of Canterbury’s ontological argument for God’s existence. Gaunilo’s Liber pro insipiente (“In Defense of the Fool”) was a critique of the rationality of Anselm’s assertion that the concept of “that

John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster was an English prince, fourth but third surviving son of the English king Edward III and Philippa of Hainaut; he exercised a moderating influence in the political and constitutional struggles of the reign of his nephew Richard II. He was the immediate ancestor of

military technology: Mail: …the early 13th century, European armourers had learned to make mail with a sufficiently fine mesh to provide protection to the hand. At first this was in the form of mittens with a leather-lined hole in the palm through which the knight could thrust his hand when out of action;…

Clint Eastwood: First directorial efforts: Eastwood went on to make The Gauntlet (1977), a kinetic but formulaic action film in which he played a police detective trying to transport a witness (Sondra Locke) to an Arizona courthouse where she can testify. The gentle good humor pervading Bronco Billy (1980) was far removed from the mayhem…

gaur, (Bos gaurus), one of several species of wild cattle, family Bovidae (order Artiodactyla). The gaur lives in small herds in the mountain forests of India, Southeast Asia, and the Malay Peninsula. Larger than any other wild cattle, it attains a shoulder height of 1.8 m (6 feet) or more. It is

Gauda, a city, a country, and a literary style in ancient India. The city is better known under its Anglicized name, Gaur. Its first recorded reference is by the grammarian Panini (5th century bce), and its location may be inferred to have been in eastern India. The name Gauda, in Sanskrit

Sheopur: …were founded in 1537 by Gaur Rajputs (a warrior caste) and served as capital of Sheopur princely state. It is now a road junction and rail terminus and is an important produce market. It is also known for its lacquered woodwork, and playing cards are manufactured there. Sheopur has a…

Chaitanya was a Hindu mystic whose mode of worshipping the god Krishna with ecstatic song and dance had a profound effect on Vaishnavism in Bengal. The son of a Brahman, he grew up in an atmosphere of piety and affection. He received a thorough education in the Sanskrit scriptures and, after the

Godarpura: …another lingam stands outside the Gauri Somnath temple. The other temples on the island are Shaivite, but there are Vaisnavite and Jain temples on the north bank of the river, and on the south bank stands one of Godarpura’s Brahma temples. The raja’s palace stands on a terraced hillside of…

Assam: Prehistory to c. 1950: …1786, when the ruling prince, Gaurinath Singh, sought aid from Calcutta (Kolkata), which by that time had become the capital of British India. A British army officer, sent by the British governor-general in India, restored peace and subsequently was recalled, in spite of the protests of the Ahom king. Internal…

principle of competitive exclusion, (after G.F. Gause, a Soviet biologist, and J. Grinnell, an American naturalist, who first clearly established it), statement that in competition between species that seek the same ecological niche, one species survives while the other expires under a given set of

principle of competitive exclusion, (after G.F. Gause, a Soviet biologist, and J. Grinnell, an American naturalist, who first clearly established it), statement that in competition between species that seek the same ecological niche, one species survives while the other expires under a given set of

principle of competitive exclusion: G.F. Gause, a Soviet biologist, and J. Grinnell, an American naturalist, who first clearly established it), statement that in competition between species that seek the same ecological niche, one species survives while the other expires under a given set of environmental conditions. The result is…

gauss, unit of magnetic induction in the centimetre-gram-second system of physical units. One gauss corresponds to the magnetic flux density that will induce an electromotive force of one abvolt (10-8 volt) in each linear centimetre of a wire moving laterally at one centimetre per second at right

Gauss elimination, in linear and multilinear algebra, a process for finding the solutions of a system of simultaneous linear equations by first solving one of the equations for one variable (in terms of all the others) and then substituting this expression into the remaining equations. The result

Gauss’s law, either of two statements describing electric and magnetic fluxes. Gauss’s law for electricity states that the electric flux Φ across any closed surface is proportional to the net electric charge q enclosed by the surface; that is, Φ = q/ε0, where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free

mechanics of solids: Equations of motion: …for Tj above and the divergence theorem of multivariable calculus, which states that integrals over the area of a closed surface S, with integrand ni f (x), may be rewritten as integrals over the volume V enclosed by S, with integrand ∂f (x)/∂xi; when f (x) is a differentiable function,…

Gauss’s law, either of two statements describing electric and magnetic fluxes. Gauss’s law for electricity states that the electric flux Φ across any closed surface is proportional to the net electric charge q enclosed by the surface; that is, Φ = q/ε0, where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free

Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician, generally regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time for his contributions to number theory, geometry, probability theory, geodesy, planetary astronomy, the theory of functions, and potential theory (including electromagnetism). Gauss

Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician, generally regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time for his contributions to number theory, geometry, probability theory, geodesy, planetary astronomy, the theory of functions, and potential theory (including electromagnetism). Gauss

Erich Dagobert von Drygalski: …miles (80 km) east of Gaussberg, an ice-free volcanic peak that Drygalski named and that was a notable discovery. The results of the venture were published in 20 volumes of scientific reports, Deutsche Südpolar-Expedition 1901–1903 (1905–31; “German South Polar Expedition”). His general account of the trip, Zum Kontinent des eisigens…

Sir John A. Pople: …Pople designed a computer program, Gaussian, that could perform quantum-mechanical calculations to provide quick and accurate theoretical estimates of the properties of molecules and of their behaviour in chemical reactions. Gaussian eventually entered use in chemical laboratories throughout the world and became a basic tool in quantum-chemical studies. The computer…

curvature: The total (or Gaussian) curvature (see differential geometry: Curvature of surfaces) is the product of the principal curvatures.

Brownian motion: Einstein’s theory of Brownian motion: The graph is the familiar bell-shaped Gaussian “normal” curve that typically arises when the random variable is the sum of many independent, statistically identical random variables, in this case the many little pushes that add up to the total motion. The equation for this relationship is

normal distribution, the most common distribution function for independent, randomly generated variables. Its familiar bell-shaped curve is ubiquitous in statistical reports, from survey analysis and quality control to resource allocation. The graph of the normal distribution is characterized by

Gauss elimination, in linear and multilinear algebra, a process for finding the solutions of a system of simultaneous linear equations by first solving one of the equations for one variable (in terms of all the others) and then substituting this expression into the remaining equations. The result

Brownian motion: Einstein’s theory of Brownian motion: The graph is the familiar bell-shaped Gaussian “normal” curve that typically arises when the random variable is the sum of many independent, statistically identical random variables, in this case the many little pushes that add up to the total motion. The equation for this relationship is

algebra: Prime factorization: …i = −1), sometimes called Gaussian integers. In doing so, Gauss not only used complex numbers to solve a problem involving ordinary integers, a fact remarkable in itself, but he also opened the way to the detailed investigation of special subdomains of the complex numbers.

Indian philosophy: The logical period: Gautama (author of the Nyaya-sutras; probably flourished at the beginning of the Christian era) and his 5th-century commentator Vatsyayana established the foundations of the Nyaya as a school almost exclusively preoccupied with logical and epistemological issues. The Madhyamika (“Middle Way”) school of Buddhism—also known as…

Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophical systems of southern and eastern Asia and of the world. Buddha is one of the many epithets of a teacher who lived in northern India sometime between the 6th and the 4th century before the Common Era. His followers,

Satavahana dynasty: Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra Shatakarni (reigned c. 106–130 ce), the greatest ruler of the family. His conquests ranged over a vast territorial expanse stretching from Rajasthan in the northwest to Andhra in the southeast and from Gujarat in the west to Kalinga in the east. Sometime before 150,…

Gauteng, province, northeastern South Africa. It consists of the cities of Pretoria, Johannesburg, Germiston, and Vereeniging and their surrounding metropolitan areas in the eastern part of the Witwatersrand region. Gauteng is the smallest South African province. It is bordered by the provinces of

Emiland-Marie Gauthey was a French engineer, best known for his construction of the Charolais Canal, or Canal du Centre, which united the Loire and Saône rivers in France, thus providing a water route from the Loire to the Rhône River. Gauthey studied at the École des Ponts et Chaussées (School of

Gautier de Metz was a French poet and priest who is usually credited with the authorship of a treatise about the universe, L’Image du monde (c. 1246; “The Mirror of the World”; also called Mappemonde), based on the medieval Latin text Imago mundi by Honorius Inclusus. Gautier’s poem is one of

Gautier d’Arras was an author of early French romances. He lacked the skill and profundity of his contemporary Chrétien de Troyes, but his work, emphasizing human action and its psychological foundations, exercised an important influence on the genre known as roman d’aventure (“romance of

French literature: Religious drama: …on a nondramatic compilation by Gautier de Coincy. These miracles probably were performed by the Paris goldsmiths’ guild.

Gautier de Metz was a French poet and priest who is usually credited with the authorship of a treatise about the universe, L’Image du monde (c. 1246; “The Mirror of the World”; also called Mappemonde), based on the medieval Latin text Imago mundi by Honorius Inclusus. Gautier’s poem is one of

Léon Gautier was a literary historian who revived an interest in early French literature with his translation and critical discussion of the Chanson de Roland (1872) and with his research on the chansons de geste. In Paris in 1859, Gautier became keeper of the imperial archives and of the archives

Hubert Gautier was a French engineer and scientist, known as the author of the first book on bridge building. After beginning a career in medicine, Gautier turned first to mathematics and then to engineering and served for 28 years as the engineer of the province of Languedoc. He was named

Léon Gautier was a literary historian who revived an interest in early French literature with his translation and critical discussion of the Chanson de Roland (1872) and with his research on the chansons de geste. In Paris in 1859, Gautier became keeper of the imperial archives and of the archives

Camille, fictional character, the protagonist of La Dame aux camélias (1848; staged 1852) by Alexandre Dumas fils. Camille made her way in life as a courtesan, and her byname referred to the camellias she carried as a signal of her availability. Camille gives up her way of life after falling in

Théophile Gautier was a poet, novelist, critic, and journalist whose influence was strongly felt in the period of changing sensibilities in French literature—from the early Romantic period to the aestheticism and naturalism of the end of the 19th century. Gautier lived most of his life in Paris. At

Johannesburg: Transportation: …Africa’s first high-speed train, the Gautrain, links Johannesburg with Pretoria as well as stops along the way; another spur connects with nearby O.R. Tambo International Airport. A municipal bus system operates within the city, and a separate, private bus company operating under a state monopoly connects the city centre with…

Paul, Baron Gautsch von Frankenthurn was a statesman who served three times as Austrian prime minister. A graduate of the University of Vienna, Gautsch von Frankenthurn entered the imperial Ministry of Education (1874) and served as Austrian minister of education in the cabinets of Eduard, Count

Canadian literature: Contemporary trends: Reworking Montesquieu’s Persian Letters (1721), Lise Gauvin used in Lettres d’une autre (1984; Letters from an Other) a Persian narrator who comments naively and honestly on Quebec society. Michel Tremblay’s early novels, such as La Grosse Femme d’à côté est enceinte (1978; The Fat Lady Next Door Is Pregnant), are…

Canadian literature: World War II and the postwar period, 1935–60: Poet and playwright Claude Gauvreau, one of the signatories of the manifesto, transposed the group’s principles to the written word, while poet and engraver Roland Giguère began writing poetry inspired by both Surrealism and Quebec nationalism. On the political front, in 1950 Pierre Elliott Trudeau and others founded…

gauze, light, open-weave fabric made of cotton when used for surgical dressings and of silk and other fibers when used for dress trimming. It is made either by a plain weave or by a leno weave. Similar fabrics include cheesecloth, made of cotton, originally used as a wrapping for pressed cheese and

textile: Gauze or leno weave: Gauze weaving is an open weave made by twisting adjacent warps together. It is usually made by the leno, or doup, weaving process, in which a doup attachment, a thin hairpin-like needle attached to two healds, is used, and the adjacent warp yarns cross each…

Paul Gavarni was a French lithographer and painter whose work is enjoyable for its polished wit, cultured observation, and the panorama it presents of the life of his time. However, his work lacks the power of his great contemporary Honoré Daumier. About 1831 Gavarni began publishing his scenes of

Gavarnie-Gèdre, municipality on the approach to the natural amphitheatre known as the Cirque de Gavarnie, in Hautes-Pyrénées département, Occitanie région, southwestern France. Gavarnie, lying on the French side of the Franco-Spanish frontier in the central Pyrenees at an elevation of 4,452 feet

Sunil Gavaskar is an Indian cricket player who is considered one of the sport’s greatest opening batsmen of all time. Gavaskar skillfully captained the Indian team in 47 Test (international) matches and dominated the game during a career that spanned 16 years and 125 total Test contests. Gavaskar

Sunil Gavaskar is an Indian cricket player who is considered one of the sport’s greatest opening batsmen of all time. Gavaskar skillfully captained the Indian team in 47 Test (international) matches and dominated the game during a career that spanned 16 years and 125 total Test contests. Gavaskar

Gwātar Bay, inlet of the Arabian Sea indenting the sandy Makran coast at the Iran–Pakistan border. It is about 20 miles (32 km) long and 10 miles (16 km) wide. The Dashtīārī River flows into it from the northwest, and the Dasht from the northeast. Along the bay are the village of Bandar Gavāter,

Gavazzi Riots, disturbances in Quebec and Montreal in June 1853 during a lecture tour by Alessandro Gavazzi, Italian orator of the Risorgimento (movement for Italian unification) and a former Catholic priest who had become a bitter critic of the Roman Catholic Church. On June 6 Gavazzi, speaking in

Alessandro Gavazzi was a reformer in church and politics during the Risorgimento (Italian unification) who inveighed against the neglect of social problems and Italian unity by the papacy. Gavazzi at first became a monk (1825) and attached himself to the Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards

Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall was a favourite of the English king Edward II. The king’s inordinate love for him made him rapacious and arrogant and led to his murder by jealous barons. The son of a Gascon knight, he was brought up at the court of Edward I as foster brother and playmate for his

loon, (order Gaviiformes), any of five species of diving birds constituting the genus Gavia, family Gaviidae. Loons were formerly included, along with the grebes, to which they bear a superficial resemblance, in the order Colymbiformes, but they are considered to constitute their own separate