gelada, (Theropithecus gelada), large baboonlike monkey that differs from true baboons in having the nostrils some distance from the tip of the muzzle. The gelada inhabits the mountains of Ethiopia and lives in groups among steep cliffs and high plateaus. Terrestrial and active during the day, it

China: Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty: …of Brothers and Elders (Gelaohui) in the Yangtze River region. In 1899 Kang’s followers organized the Independence Army (Zilijun) at Hankou in order to plan an uprising, but the scheme ended unsuccessfully. Early in 1900 the Revive China Society revolutionaries also formed a kind of alliance with the Brothers…

Gelasian Stage, first of four stages of the Pleistocene Series, encompassing all rocks deposited during the Gelasian Age (2,588,000 to 1,806,000 years ago) of the Pleistocene Epoch in the Quaternary Period. The name of this interval is derived from the town of Gela in Sicily, Italy. In 1996 the

St. Gelasius I ; feast day November 21) was the pope, leader of the Roman Catholic Church, from 492 ce to 496 ce. Succeeding St. Felix III in March 492, Gelasius combatted the Acacian Schism that had arisen in the East under Patriarch Acacius (reigned 471–489) as a result of Rome’s refusal to

Gelasius II was the pope from 1118 to 1119. He was called to Rome from Montecassino, Italy, by Pope Urban II, who created him cardinal (1088) and papal chancellor (1089). He was elected pope on Jan. 24, 1118, as successor to Paschal II, whose pontificate had been damaged by dissension from the

Amish: Beliefs and way of life: …act contrary to the critical Gelassenheit: that spirit of humility, modesty, and informality that lies at the heart of the Amish way of life and which the Amish believe was exemplified by Jesus Christ; other Amish may play an instrument in private, such as the accordion or harmonica, but never…

toad bug, (family Gelastocoridae), any of some 100 species of insects in the true bug order, Heteroptera, that resemble tiny frogs. They have short, broad bodies and protruding eyes and capture their prey by leaping upon it. Adults in this family are wingless. Toad bugs are found in all

gelatin, animal protein substance having gel-forming properties, used primarily in food products and home cookery, also having various industrial uses. Derived from collagen, a protein found in animal skin and bone, it is extracted by boiling animal hides, skins, bones, and tissue after alkali or

gelatin process, photographic process in which gelatin is used as the dispersing vehicle for the light-sensitive silver salts. The process, introduced in about 1880, superseded the wet collodion process, in which a wet negative was produced from a nitrocellulose (collodion) solution applied to a

Alfred Nobel: …more powerful form of dynamite, blasting gelatin, which he patented the following year. Again by chance, he had discovered that mixing a solution of nitroglycerin with a fluffy substance known as nitrocellulose results in a tough, plastic material that has a high water resistance and greater blasting power than ordinary…

gelatin process, photographic process in which gelatin is used as the dispersing vehicle for the light-sensitive silver salts. The process, introduced in about 1880, superseded the wet collodion process, in which a wet negative was produced from a nitrocellulose (collodion) solution applied to a

cereal processing: Starch composition: The gelatinization of starch that occurs in hot water is an important characteristic, and the viscous pastes formed are influenced by the treatment the starch has received in its preliminary separation from the cereal or tuber. Chemicals affect degree and speed of gelatinization and the nature…

Alfred Nobel: …more powerful form of dynamite, blasting gelatin, which he patented the following year. Again by chance, he had discovered that mixing a solution of nitroglycerin with a fluffy substance known as nitrocellulose results in a tough, plastic material that has a high water resistance and greater blasting power than ordinary…

gelato, type of ice cream with Italian origins. Sweets and drinks have been cooled using ice or snow since ancient times, and most cultures around the world have their own histories of iced desserts, from the cone-shaped kulfi of India to Turkey’s salep dondurma, but it was probably in 16th-century

writing: History of writing systems: The Polish American Assyriologist Ignace Gelb distinguished four stages in this evolution, beginning with picture writing, which expressed ideas directly; followed by word-based writing systems; then by sound-based syllabic writing systems, including unvocalized syllabaries or consonantal systems; and concluding with the Greek invention of the alphabet.

Jack Gelber was an American playwright known for The Connection (performed 1959, published 1960), and for his association with the Living Theatre, an innovative, experimental theatre group. After graduating from the University of Illinois in Urbana, Gelber began working with the struggling Living

Samuel Goldwyn was a pioneer American filmmaker and one of Hollywood’s most prominent producers for more than 30 years. Orphaned as a child, Goldwyn emigrated first to London and eventually to a small town in New York state, where he worked in a glove factory. By the age of 18 he was one of the top

United Kingdom: Government and justice: …been able to levy a geld, or tax, assessed on the value of land and originally intended to provide funds to buy off Danish invaders. The Confessor had abandoned this tax, but the Conqueror collected it at least four times. Profits from the ample royal estates must have been significant,…

World War II: The invasion of the Low Countries and France: …a narrow breach of the Geld Valley line on May 12, whereupon the Dutch, unable to counterattack, retreated to the “Fortress of Holland” Line protecting Utrecht and Amsterdam. Queen Wilhelmina and her government left the country for England on May 13; and the next day the Dutch commander in chief,…

Aert de Gelder was the only Dutch artist of the late 17th and early 18th century to paint in the tradition of Rembrandt’s late style. De Gelder spent his life in Dordrecht, except for a period of time about 1661 when he was Rembrandt’s pupil in Amsterdam. His biblical paintings—e.g., Scenes from

Gelderland, provincie (province), eastern and central Netherlands. It extends from the German border westward to the narrow Lake Veluwe (separating Gelderland from several polders of Flevoland province) between the provinces of Overijssel (north) and Noord-Brabant, Zuid-Holland, and Utrecht

Gelderland: …began with the countship of Gelre, or Geldern, established in the 11th century around castles near Roermond and Geldern (now in Germany). The counts of Gelre acquired the Betuwe and Veluwe regions and, through marriage, the countship of Zutphen. Thus had the counts of Gelre laid the foundation for a…

horse: Form and function: …stallion is commonly called a gelding. Formerly, stallions were employed as riding horses, while mares were kept for breeding purposes only. Geldings were used for work and as ladies’ riding horses. Recently, however, geldings generally have replaced stallions as riding horses. Young horses are known as foals; male foals are…

Bob Geldof is an Irish rock musician and philanthropic activist who is a member of The Boomtown Rats rock group. He founded the charitable supergroup Band Aid in 1984 and organized the Live Aid concert in 1985 for the relief of famine in Ethiopia. Geldof was born the grandson of Belgian immigrants

Bob Geldof is an Irish rock musician and philanthropic activist who is a member of The Boomtown Rats rock group. He founded the charitable supergroup Band Aid in 1984 and organized the Live Aid concert in 1985 for the relief of famine in Ethiopia. Geldof was born the grandson of Belgian immigrants

Bob Geldof is an Irish rock musician and philanthropic activist who is a member of The Boomtown Rats rock group. He founded the charitable supergroup Band Aid in 1984 and organized the Live Aid concert in 1985 for the relief of famine in Ethiopia. Geldof was born the grandson of Belgian immigrants

Knut Wicksell: In Geldzins und Güterpreise (1898; Interest and Prices, 1936) he propounded an explanation of price-level movements by an aggregate demand–supply analysis focussed on the relations between prospective profit and interest rates. This made Wicksell a forerunner of modern monetary theory and anticipated the work of John Maynard Keynes in A…

Justice and Development Party: Expansion of power and decline in popular support: …the party to form the Future Party (Gelecek Partisi); another breakaway party, the Democracy and Progress Party (Demokrasi ve Atılım Partisi; DEVA), was formed in 2020. Both parties advocated a return to a parliamentary system of government and displayed common interest with opposition parties in unseating Erdoğan.

gelechiid moth, (family Gelechiidae), any of more than 4,500 species of moths (order Lepidoptera), some of which are important pests. The brown adults have gray or silver markings and average 19 mm (34 inch) in wingspan. The hindwings have somewhat concave outer margins and pointed tips, in

gelechiid moth, (family Gelechiidae), any of more than 4,500 species of moths (order Lepidoptera), some of which are important pests. The brown adults have gray or silver markings and average 19 mm (34 inch) in wingspan. The hindwings have somewhat concave outer margins and pointed tips, in

Lepidoptera: Annotated classification: Superfamily Gelechioidea More than 16,000 species worldwide; adults mostly larger and broader winged than Tineoidea; larvae seldom leaf miners; pupae relatively immobile. Family Gelechiidae (twirler moths) More than 4,500 species of small to minute moths, worldwide in distribution; larvae diverse, eating leaves,

African dance: The cultural position of dance: … at the height of the Gelede ritual festival in the Ketu-Yoruba villages of Nigeria and Benin. At midnight the mask dramatically appears to the expectant community, its wearer uttering potent incantations to placate witches. The dancer then moves into a powerful stamping dance in honour of the great Earth Mother…

skateboarding: …was invented in 1978 by Alan (“Ollie”) Gelfand, who discovered that slamming his foot down on the kicktail and simultaneously sliding his front foot forward caused the board and himself to jump into the air together. A grind involves riding with the trucks against the edge or top of an…

Alexander Israel Helphand was a Russian-German socialist who helped enable Lenin to reenter Russia in 1917 from exile in Switzerland, thus helping to ignite the Russian Revolution of October 1917. (Read Leon Trotsky’s 1926 Britannica essay on Lenin.) Helphand, the son of Jewish parents, grew up in

Viswanathan Anand: Attaining the top spot: In 2012 he faced Boris Gelfand of Israel in the championship match. The two men were tied after the 12th game, but Anand won the rapid tiebreaker round to remain world champion. Anand defended his world champion title in 2013 against Magnus Carlsen of Norway, who won the scheduled…

Aleksandr Osipovich Gelfond: This statement, now known as Gelfond’s theorem, solved the seventh of 23 famous problems that had been posed by the German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900. Gelfond’s methods were readily accepted by other mathematicians, and important new concepts in transcendental number theory were rapidly developed. Much of his work, including…

Aleksandr Osipovich Gelfond was a Russian mathematician who originated basic techniques in the study of transcendental numbers (numbers that cannot be expressed as the root or solution of an algebraic equation with rational coefficients). He profoundly advanced transcendental number theory and the

Gallipoli, seaport and town, European Turkey. It lies on a narrow peninsula where the Dardanelles opens into the Sea of Marmara, 126 miles (203 km) west-southwest of Istanbul. An important Byzantine fortress, it was the first Ottoman conquest (c. 1356) in Europe and was maintained as a naval base

agar: …primarily from the red algae Gelidium and Gracilaria (division Rhodophyta). Best known as a solidifying component of bacteriological culture media, it is also used in canning meat, fish, and poultry; in cosmetics, medicines, and dentistry; as a clarifying agent in brewing and wine making; as a thickening agent in ice…

Andreas Gryphius: …the best of which are Die geliebte Dornrose (1660; The Beloved Hedgerose) and Herr Peter Squentz (1663).

solifluction, flowage of water-saturated soil down a steep slope. Because permafrost is impermeable to water, soil overlying it may become oversaturated and slide downslope under the pull of gravity. Soil that has been opened and weakened by frost action is most susceptible. Movement is at a

Gelimer was the last Vandal king (ruled 530–534) of the area called by the Romans “Africa” (roughly, modern Tunisia). The great-grandson of the Vandal leader Gaiseric (ruled 428–477), Gelimer deposed King Hilderic, his pro-Roman cousin, in 530 and usurped the throne despite protests from the

The Man Who Knew Too Much: Cast:

Gelisol, one of the 12 soil orders of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Gelisols are perennially frozen soils of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, but they are also found at extremely high elevations in the lower latitudes. They are fragile, easily eroded soils, and their location near the polar ice caps

Murray Gell-Mann was an American physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1969 for his work pertaining to the classification of subatomic particles and their interactions. At age 15 Gell-Mann entered Yale University, and, after graduating from Yale with a B.S. in physics in 1948, he

Sarah Michelle Gellar is an American actress and entrepreneur who was perhaps best known for her work on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003). Gellar’s show-business career began when, at the age of four, she was noticed by an agent. A few weeks later she began work on the

Claude Lorrain was a French artist best known for, and one of the greatest masters of, ideal landscape painting, an art form that seeks to present a view of nature more beautiful and harmonious than nature itself. The quality of that beauty is governed by Classical concepts, and the landscape often

Gellert, in Welsh tradition, the trusted hound of Prince Llewellyn the Great of Wales. Having been left to guard his master’s infant son, Gellert killed a wolf that attempted to attack the child. Llewellyn, returning home to find the baby missing and Gellert’s muzzle stained with blood, assumed

Budapest: Buda: …Castle Hill rises the higher Gellért Hill (771 feet), a steep limestone escarpment overlooking the Danube, which provides a panoramic view of the whole city. At the top stands the Citadel (Citadella)—built by the Austrian army in the mid-19th century in order to keep watch over the town—which serves today…

Christian Fürchtegott Gellert was a poet and novelist, a prominent representative of the German Enlightenment whose works were, for a time, second in popularity only to the Bible. The son of a pastor, Gellert was reared in a poor and extremely pious family. After working as a tutor, he studied at

Karl Ziegler: Polyethylene: …1952 and 1953, Ziegler and Hans-Georg Gellert, one of his former students from Halle, found that in the polymerization reaction organolithium compounds, except for lithium aluminum hydride, irreversibly decomposed into lithium hydride and an alkyl. To establish whether lithium or aluminum was the more active metal, Gellert tested organoaluminum compounds.…

St. Gerard ; feast day September 24) was a Venetian Benedictine monk, one of the chief Christian evangelizers of Hungary. He was a scion of the Morosini family and served as bishop of Csanád in southern Hungary. In the struggle for the throne that followed the death of Stephen I, Gerard became a

Martha Gellhorn was an American journalist and novelist who, as one of the first female war correspondents, candidly described ordinary people in times of unrest. Though often remembered for her brief marriage to American author Ernest Hemingway, Gellhorn refused to be a “footnote” to his life;

Martha Gellhorn was an American journalist and novelist who, as one of the first female war correspondents, candidly described ordinary people in times of unrest. Though often remembered for her brief marriage to American author Ernest Hemingway, Gellhorn refused to be a “footnote” to his life;

Gelligaer, community formerly known for mining, Caerphilly county borough, historic county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg), southern Wales. It lies in the middle of the River Rhymney valley. Old Gelligaer village is located on the site of a Roman fort, on the ridge-top road northward from Cardiff, but the

Aulus Gellius was a Latin author remembered for his miscellany Noctes Atticae (“Attic Nights”), in which many fragments of lost works are preserved. Written in Athens to beguile the winter evenings, the work is an interesting source on the state of knowledge and scholarship of his time. Both in

Cabaret: Original Broadway cast and production: …Haworth, Bert Convy, Lotte Lenya, Jack Gilford, Edward Winter, and Joel Grey as the depraved Master of Ceremonies (or Emcee), a role that he reprised to great acclaim in the 1972 film version of Cabaret. Grey’s performances earned him both a Tony Award (for best featured actor in a musical)…

Juan Gelman was an Argentinian poet and leftist political activist who was exiled from his home country in the 1970s. Gelman was jailed in the early 1960s during the Peronists’ struggle for control of the federal government in Argentina. From the late 1960s to the mid-1970s, he wrote for the

Juan Gelman was an Argentinian poet and leftist political activist who was exiled from his home country in the 1970s. Gelman was jailed in the early 1960s during the Peronists’ struggle for control of the federal government in Argentina. From the late 1960s to the mid-1970s, he wrote for the

Diego Gelmírez was a Spanish bishop and archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, site of the supposed shrine of St. James, which he developed as a place of pilgrimage. Gelmírez was consecrated bishop of Compostela in 1101, and in 1120 Pope Calixtus II promoted him to archbishop and appointed him papal

Gelon was the tyrant of the cities of Gela (491–485) and Syracuse (485–478) in Sicily. On the death of Hippocrates, the tyrant of Gela, in 491, Gelon, who had been his cavalry commander, succeeded him. Gelon early became involved in inconclusive hostilities with Carthage. In 485, taking advantage

Compagnia dei Gelosi, (Italian: “Company of Jealous Ones”), one of the earliest and most famous of the commedia dell’arte companies of 16th-century Italy. The name was derived from the troupe’s motto, Virtù, fama ed honor ne fèr gelosi (“We are jealous of attaining virtue, fame, and honour”).

Gelderland: …began with the countship of Gelre, or Geldern, established in the 11th century around castles near Roermond and Geldern (now in Germany). The counts of Gelre acquired the Betuwe and Veluwe regions and, through marriage, the countship of Zutphen. Thus had the counts of Gelre laid the foundation for a…

Gentianales: Gelsemiaceae: Formerly placed in Loganiaceae, Gelsemiaceae is a small family of two shrubby or lianoid genera and 11 species. Gelsemium elegans (allspice jasmine) from Indomalesia contains powerful alkaloids that have been used in murder and suicide. The sweetly scented Gelsemium sempervirens (Carolina, or yellow, jessamine)…

Gentianales: Gelsemiaceae: Gelsemium elegans (allspice jasmine) from Indomalesia contains powerful alkaloids that have been used in murder and suicide. The sweetly scented Gelsemium sempervirens (Carolina, or yellow, jessamine) is a highly poisonous vine in the southern United States that is also cultivated and has been used medicinally…

Gentianales: Gelsemiaceae: The sweetly scented Gelsemium sempervirens (Carolina, or yellow, jessamine) is a highly poisonous vine in the southern United States that is also cultivated and has been used medicinally for migraines. The second genus, Mostuea, has a transoceanic distribution with one American and seven African species.

Gelsenkirchen, city, North Rhine–Westphalia Land (state), western Germany. It lies just north of Essen. Gelsenkirchen was a village of fewer than 1,000 inhabitants in 1850, but the opening in 1853 of its first coal mine and its favourable position on the Rhine-Herne Canal stimulated its rapid

Yekaterina Vasilyevna Geltzer was the prima ballerina of the Moscow Bolshoi Theatre who, during the period of disorder following the Revolution of 1917, helped preserve and pass on the classical technique and repertory of the Imperial Russian Ballet. Though her father, Vasily Geltzer, an

Dge-lugs-pa, since the 17th century, the predominant Buddhist order in Tibet and the sect of the Dalai and Paṇchen lamas. The Dge-lugs-pa sect was founded in the late 14th century by Tsong-kha-pa, who was himself a member of the austere Bka’-gdams-pa school. Tsong-kha-pa’s reforms represented a

Dge-lugs-pa, since the 17th century, the predominant Buddhist order in Tibet and the sect of the Dalai and Paṇchen lamas. The Dge-lugs-pa sect was founded in the late 14th century by Tsong-kha-pa, who was himself a member of the austere Bka’-gdams-pa school. Tsong-kha-pa’s reforms represented a

gemstone, any of various minerals highly prized for beauty, durability, and rarity. A few noncrystalline materials of organic origin (e.g., pearl, red coral, and amber) also are classified as gemstones. Gemstones have attracted humankind since ancient times, and have long been used for jewelry. The

Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), museum in Giza, Egypt, housing archaeological artifacts from thousands of years of human civilization in Egypt, spanning from the predynastic period to the Greco-Roman era (c. 3100 bce to 400 ce). Its collection draws from a number of cultural institutions in Egypt,

air-cushion machine: … (ACVs); the latter are called aerodynamic ground-effect machines (GEMs).

jewelry: Gem engraving, setting, and cutting: The cutting known as faceting gradually developed from the first attempts in the 15th century, probably in France and the Netherlands. During the 16th century the simple rose cut began to be used, after which there were no new developments until 1640, when, under the patronage…

gemstone: …being cabochon cut, some are engraved. High-speed, diamond-tipped cutting tools are used. The stone is hand-held against the tool, with the shape, symmetry, size, and depth of cut being determined by eye. Gemstones can also be made by cementing several smaller stones together to create one large jewel. See assembled…

Gemma Augustea, sardonyx cameo depicting the apotheosis of Augustus. He is seated next to the goddess Roma, and both are trampling the armour of defeated enemies. It is one of the most impressive carved cameos of a series of Roman gems representing imperial persons. The Gemma Augustea (now in the

African American literature: August Wilson: …Hedley II (produced 1999), and Gem of the Ocean (produced 2003), excited the admiration of critics and viewers as much as his earlier plays.

Fifteen Puzzle, puzzle consisting of 15 squares, numbered 1 through 15, which can be slid horizontally or vertically within a four-by-four grid that has one empty space among its 16 locations. The object of the puzzle is to arrange the squares in numerical sequence using only the extra space in the

jewelry: Gem engraving, setting, and cutting: The insertion of gems in jewelry can be done in various ways. The setting can have a round, square, oval, or rectangular collet (rim); in periods in which gems were mounted in their own irregular shapes, the collet followed this form. Usually, on the inside of the collet…

Idaho, constituent state of the United States of America. It ranks 14th among the 50 U.S. states in terms of total area. Its boundaries—with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north and the U.S. states of Montana and Wyoming to the east, Utah and Nevada to the south, and Oregon and

organosulfur compound: Reactions: …add hydrogen sulfide to yield gem-dithiols (i.e., having both ―SH groups on the same carbon)—for example, propane-2,2-dithiol, CH3C(SH)2CH3, in the case of thioacetone. It is probably the gem-dithiols rather than the thioketones themselves that are responsible for the extremely offensive smell associated with low-molecular-weight thioketones. Thionocarbonates of type ROC(S)OR′, derived…

Gemäldegalerie, art museum in Berlin possessing one of the top collections of European paintings from the 13th to 18th century. It is one of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (National Museums of Berlin). Together with the Kunstgewerbemuseum (“Museum of Decorative Arts”), the Kunstbibliothek (“Art

Gemara, a rabbinic commentary on and interpretation of the collection of Jewish law known as the Mishna. See

gematria, the substitution of numbers for letters of the Hebrew alphabet, a favourite method of exegesis used by medieval Kabbalists to derive mystical insights into sacred writings or obtain new interpretations of the texts. Some condemned its use as mere toying with numbers, but others considered

Gemayel family, Maronite Christian family prominent in Lebanese politics before and after the start of that country’s civil war in 1975. Pierre Gemayel (b. November 1/6, 1905, Bikfaya?, Lebanon—d. August 29, 1984, Bikfaya) was born into a Christian family already powerful in the region immediately

Gemayel family: Bashir’s older brother, Amin Gemayel (b. 1942, Bikfaya), was elected president of Lebanon a week after Bashir died. In contrast to his warlike brother, Amin had shown himself to be conciliatory toward the other religious groups in Lebanon during his 12 years as a member of the Lebanese…

1983 Beirut barracks bombings: Background: …14, 1982, of Lebanese president-elect Bashir Gemayel—the Phalangist leader of the Lebanese Forces, a unified Maronite Christian militia—sparked a wave of violence. Christian militiamen retaliated for Gemayel’s death by killing hundreds of Palestinians (estimates range from several hundred to several thousand) at the Ṣabrā and Shātīlā refugee camps. In the…

Gemayel family: Pierre Gemayel (b. November 1/6, 1905, Bikfaya?, Lebanon—d. August 29, 1984, Bikfaya) was born into a Christian family already powerful in the region immediately north of Beirut. He attended St. Joseph University in Beirut and trained as a pharmacist. On a visit to Berlin to…

Gemayel family: Amin’s eldest son, Pierre Amin Gemayel, played a leading role in the Phalange Party until his assassination in 2006. After Amin stepped down as head of the Phalange Party in 2015, the position passed to another of his sons, Samy Gemayel.

Alessandro Farnese: Heritage and early career: …Farnese fought energetically in the Battle of Gembloux, in which the rebellious Dutch forces were routed, and punished a number of towns with a harshness that contrasts with his subsequent attitude.

pancreatic cancer: Treatment: …the chemotherapeutic agent gemcitabine (Gemzar), an antimetabolite that inhibits the synthesis of genetic material in dividing cells, patient survival is improved, although only modestly. Several other targeted drugs such as cetuximab (Erbitux), a monoclonal antibody that binds to EGFR and thus prevents kinase activation and cell division, are being…

history of the Low Countries: Town opposition to the prince: …lower class formed, called the gemeen (“common,” in the strict sense of the word), which embraced the artisans and organized into crafts such tradesmen as butchers, bakers, tailors, carpenters, masons, weavers, fullers, shearers, and coppersmiths. These crafts, or guilds, originally developed out of charitable organizations of people in the same…

Germany: Regional and local government: …are further subdivided into the Gemeinden (roughly “communities” or “parishes”), which through long German tradition have achieved considerable autonomy and responsibility in the administration of schools, hospitals, housing and construction, social welfare, public services and utilities, and cultural amenities. Voters may pass laws on certain issues via referenda at the…

Marie, baroness von Ebner-Eschenbach: …her masterpiece, Das Gemeindekind (1887; The Child of the Parish), she graphically depicted the surroundings of her Moravian home and showed a true sympathy for the poor and an unsentimental understanding of children. Lotti, die Uhrmacherin (1879; “Lotti, the Watchmaker”), Zwei Comtessen (1885; “Two Countesses”), and Unsühnbar (1890; “Inexpiable,” or…

German Civil Code: …in the code was the gemeines Recht, the common law based on the 6th-century codification of Roman law put in force by the emperor Justinian. In family law and to some extent in the law of property, some elements of Germanic tribal law also influenced the code. Although altered to…

Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Opponent of the Nazis: …his book Gemeinsames Leben (1939; Life Together). From this period also dates Nachfolge (1937; The Cost of Discipleship), a study of the Sermon on the Mount and the Pauline epistles in which he attacked the “cheap grace” being marketed in Protestant (especially Lutheran) churches—i.e., an unlimited offer of forgiveness, which…

communitarianism: The common good versus individual rights: …oppressive but nurturing communities (Gemeinschaft) to liberating but impersonal societies (Gesellschaft). They warned of the dangers of anomie (normlessness) and alienation in modern societies composed of atomized individuals who had gained their liberty but lost their social moorings. Essentially the theses of Tönnies and Durkheim were supported with contemporary…

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, ideal types of social organizations that were systematically elaborated by German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies in his influential work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887; Community and Society). Tönnies’s conception of the nature of social systems is based on his

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: …work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887; Community and Society).

Giacomo Puccini: Early life and marriage: …Lucca with a married woman, Elvira Gemignani. Finding in their passion the courage to defy the truly enormous scandal generated by their illegal union, they lived at first in Monza, near Milan, where a son, Antonio, was born. In 1890 they moved to Milan, and in 1891 to Torre del…