gene therapy, introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into the nucleus of a mutant cell, the gene most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele;

gene therapy, introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into the nucleus of a mutant cell, the gene most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele;

Boxing champion Gene Tunney, who won the heavyweight title with his defeat of Jack Dempsey in 1926, was a highly intelligent and literate man, penning for the initial printing of Britannica’s new 14th Edition (1929–73) the encyclopedia’s coverage of American boxing. In fact, there is probably no

gene-for-gene coevolution, a specific form of reciprocal evolutionary change based on the idea that, if one member of a coevolving relationship has a gene that affects the relationship, the other member has a gene to counter this effect. These genes evolve reciprocally and provide the genetic basis

Hecataeus of Miletus: …Hecataeus’s two known works, the Genealogia (also known as Historiai or Heroologia), seems to have been a systematic account in four books of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks, but comparatively few fragments of it survive. More than 300 fragments (most of them place names), however, remain of the…

textual criticism: Recension: In the “genealogical” or “stemmatic” approach, the attempt to reconstruct an original text here relies on the witnesses themselves regarded as physical objects related to each other chronologically and genealogically; the text and the textual vehicle (the book itself) are treated as a single entity. On the basis of…

heraldry: Ireland: …Office became known as the Genealogical Office. A civil servant was then appointed as Chief Herald of Ireland. The office of Ulster King of Arms has now been united with that of Norroy King of Arms in the College of Arms in London. The Irish Herald undertakes the duties formerly…

genealogy, the study of family origins and history. Genealogists compile lists of ancestors, which they arrange in pedigree charts or other written forms. The word genealogy comes from two Greek words—one meaning “race” or “family” and the other “theory” or “science.” Thus is derived “to trace

genecentre, any of a number of areas on the Earth from which arose important crop plants and domestic animals. As few as four of these centres of origin have probably provided the great majority of the most useful plants and animals: (1) tropical southeastern Asia—rice, chickens; (2) temperate

genecentre, any of a number of areas on the Earth from which arose important crop plants and domestic animals. As few as four of these centres of origin have probably provided the great majority of the most useful plants and animals: (1) tropical southeastern Asia—rice, chickens; (2) temperate

Dame Adeline Genée was a dancer, choreographer, and teacher who was founder-president of the Royal Academy of Dancing. The daughter of a farmer, Anina Jensen was adopted at age eight by her uncle, Alexander Genée, director of a modest touring ballet company. Trained by her uncle and his wife,

Al-Junaynah, town in the Darfur region of western Sudan. It lies about 15 miles (24 km) east of the Chad border and about 220 miles (350 km) west of Al-Fāshir, with which it is linked by a road. Al-Junaynah is located at an elevation of about 2,800 feet (853 metres). It has a domestic airport and

South San Francisco: …the biotechnology industry, which includes Genentech (founded 1976). South San Francisco boasts an attractive residential section with a view of San Francisco Bay. The most visible city attraction is a large sign, constructed in 1923, that reads “South San Francisco The Industrial City,” located on Sign Hill. San Francisco International…

genus, biological classification ranking between family and species, consisting of structurally or phylogenetically related species or a single isolated species exhibiting unusual differentiation (monotypic genus). The genus name is the first word of a binomial scientific name (the species name is

Thomas Nuttall: …information for his principal work, The Genera of North American Plants (1818).

Carolus Linnaeus: Classification by natural characters of Carolus Linnaeus: …contained in Clifford’s collection; and Genera Plantarum (1737; “Genera of Plants”), which modified and updated definitions of plant genera first offered by Tournefort.

George Bentham: …of specimens for the work Genera Plantarum (3 vol., 1862–83). It was published in Latin and covered 200 “orders” (analogous to what are now known as families) of 7,569 genera, which included more than 97,200 species.

Stephan Endlicher: …botanical collections, he wrote the Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita (1836–40; “Plant Genera Arranged According to a Natural Order”), a system of classification in which he treated 6,835 genera of plants (6,285 of vascular plants). He was appointed professor of botany at the University of Vienna in 1840. Having…

Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu: His Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita, Juxta Methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi Exaratam, Anno 1774 (1789; “Genera of Plants Arranged According to Their Natural Orders, Based on the Method Devised in the Royal Garden in Paris in the Year 1774”) extended his method of classification,…

Generation of 1898, in Spain, the novelists, poets, essayists, and thinkers active at the time of the Spanish-American War (1898), who reinvigorated Spanish letters and restored Spain to a position of intellectual and literary prominence that it had not held for centuries. The shock of Spain’s

Generation of 1898, in Spain, the novelists, poets, essayists, and thinkers active at the time of the Spanish-American War (1898), who reinvigorated Spanish letters and restored Spain to a position of intellectual and literary prominence that it had not held for centuries. The shock of Spain’s

general, title and rank of a senior army officer, usually one who commands units larger than a regiment or its equivalent or units consisting of more than one arm of the service. Frequently, however, a general is a staff officer who does not command troops but who plans their operations in the

government budget: Japan: …the budget system is the general account, which theoretically includes all revenue and expenditure directly applicable to the overall fiscal operation of the government. There is also a system of special accounts for the operation of government enterprises and other special aspects of government finance. Theoretically, each special account is…

Government Accountability Office (GAO), agency of the U.S. federal government that reports to Congress and bills itself as independent and nonpartisan. Founded in 1921 as the General Accounting Office, it was renamed the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2004. The name change was intended

motivation: Sleep processes and stress reactions: …a stressor is called the general adaptation syndrome and appears to have evolved primarily to deal with systemic stressors. As noted earlier, however, this same set of processes is also triggered by psychological stressors and is often inappropriate to the situation. For example, the stress of an important upcoming test…

business organization: Types of business associations: …essential feature, a system of management, varies greatly. In a simple form of business association the members who provide the assets are entitled to participate in the management unless otherwise agreed. In the more complex form of association, such as the company or corporation of the Anglo-American common-law countries, members…

China: Aviation: …out solely by the state-run General Administration of Civil Aviation of China (CAAC) from 1949 until the mid-1980s. In an effort to improve efficiency and service, regional airlines were then introduced in competition with the airlines operated by the CAAC. In the early 21st century the CAAC’s airline-operating responsibilities were…

Mexico: World War II, 1941–45: …in November 1941 signed a general agreement that resolved most of their outstanding quarrels. The old problem of U.S. agrarian claims was settled, a reciprocal-trade treaty was outlined, and the Mexican peso was stabilized and supported to maintain a constant dollar ratio. The United States agreed to continue silver purchases…

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), set of multilateral trade agreements aimed at the abolition of quotas and the reduction of tariff duties among the contracting nations. When GATT was concluded by 23 countries at Geneva, in 1947 (to take effect on Jan. 1, 1948), it was considered an

English language: Phonology: …often popularly referred to as General American), are in the pronunciation of certain individual vowels and diphthongs. Inland Northern American vowels sometimes have semiconsonantal final glides (i.e., sounds resembling initial w, for example, or initial y). Aside from the final glides, that American accent shows four divergences from British English:…

GMB, one of the largest trade unions in Great Britain and one of the two giant general unions (the other being Unite). The National Union of General and Municipal Workers (NUGMW) was formed in 1924 by the merger of the National Union of Gas and General Workers, the National Amalgamated Union of

anesthetic: General anesthetics: General anesthetics induce anesthesia throughout the body and can be administered either by inhalation or by direct injection into the bloodstream. The relationship between the amount of general anesthetic administered and the depression of the brain’s sensory responsiveness is arbitrarily, but usefully, divided…

anesthetic: General anesthetics: General anesthetics induce anesthesia throughout the body and can be administered either by inhalation or by direct injection into the bloodstream. The relationship between the amount of general anesthetic administered and the depression of the brain’s sensory responsiveness is arbitrarily, but usefully, divided…

Arab Feminist Union (AFU), transnational organization of feminist associations from Arab countries, which first convened in 1944. The Arab Feminist Union (AFU) focused on achieving social and political gender equality while promoting Arab nationalism. The Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) and its

international payment and exchange: The Group of Ten: …was known as the “General Arrangements to Borrow.” The adhering countries were 10 in number: the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, and Japan. They became known as the “Group of Ten.”

South Carolina: Constitutional framework: The General Assembly, South Carolina’s legislature, comprises two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Originally, each county had one senator and at least one representative, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared such apportionment unconstitutional. In 1974 the House of Representatives was divided into 124…

Indiana: Constitutional framework: …gubernatorial influence on the legislature—the General Assembly—is often weak during the second half of an administration.

Colorado: Constitutional framework: …bicameral legislature known as the General Assembly, which meets annually. It comprises a Senate of 35 members elected to four-year terms and a House of Representatives of 65 members elected to two-year terms. By a rule adopted in 1977 to streamline the legislative process, members of the assembly may introduce…

United Nations General Assembly, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and the only body in which every member of the organization is represented and allowed to vote. The first session of the assembly convened on Jan. 10, 1946, in London, with 51 countries represented. As of

intelligence: North Korea: …Korean Residents in Japan (Chosen Soren), that collects information and money from expatriate citizens. The Chosen Soren, whose name derives from the formal name of Korea when it was controlled by Japan, has been pivotal in helping North Korea to acquire advanced technology. Because Japan does not maintain formal…

General Association of Regular Baptist Churches, association of independent conservative Baptist churches in the United States, organized in 1932 after 22 Baptist churches withdrew from the Northern (later American) Baptist Convention. These churches withdrew because they felt that the Northern

average: A general average is one that is borne in common by the owners of all the property engaged in the venture.

insurance: General average clause: The general average clause in ocean marine insurance obligates the insurers of various interests to share the cost of losses incurred voluntarily to save the voyage from complete destruction. Such sacrifices must be made voluntarily, must be necessary, and must be successful.…

Baptist Union of Great Britain, largest Baptist group in the British Isles, organized in 1891 as a union of the Particular Baptist and New Connection General Baptist associations. These groups were historically related to the first English Baptists, who originated in the 17th century. The Baptist

map: International organizations: …and charting and maintains a General Bathymetric Chart of the World, which is revised periodically to include data furnished by the maritime nations participating in their programs and conferences. Other organizations that promote progress in the various aspects of mapping and charting are the International Association of Geodesy, the International…

law of war: Weapons: …sinking of the Argentine warship General Belgrano, therefore, was not contrary to international law despite its being attacked outside the Total Exclusion Zone that the British government had declared around the Falkland Islands.

Alexander Chalmers: …biographer best known for his General Biographical Dictionary (1812–17), a 32-volume revision of work first published in 11 volumes (1761).

Lewis Boss: …completed it in 1937 (General Catalogue of 33,342 Stars for the Epoch 1950, 5 vol.).

secondary education: The British system: …examinations that result in the General Certificate of Education. These examinations have two levels: General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE; formerly “ordinary”) and advanced. Entry to a university requires a prescribed combination of passes on the GCSE and advanced level in such subjects as English, foreign language, science, and mathematics.…

AlliedSignal: …supplying coal-tar chemicals and roofing; General Chemical Company (founded 1899), specializing in industrial acids; National Aniline & Chemical Company (founded 1917), producing dyes; Semet-Solvay Company (founded 1894), manufacturing coke and its by-products; and Solvay Process Company (founded 1881), producing alkalies and nitrogen materials. In the 1940s these companies were transformed…

scientific modeling: …model of note is the general circulation model, which is used for simulating human- and non-human-induced climate change. Modeling of geologic events, such as convection within Earth and theoretical movements of Earth’s plates, has advanced scientists’ knowledge of volcanoes and earthquakes and of the evolution of Earth’s surface. In ecology,…

Portugal: The 18th century: …1661 and set up the General Company for Wines of Alto Douro to control the port wine trade. Industries for the manufacture of hats (1759), cutlery (1764), and other articles were established with varying success.

Italy: Later economic trends: …from the employers’ association, the Confederation of Industries (Confindustria). This was reflected in a sharp fall in inflation to 12 percent in 1984 and down to 4.2 percent in 1986. However, a three-year contract signed in 1987 between Confindustria and trade unions representing all civil servants and some private industrial…

Italy: Domestic policies: …various Socialist-led unions formed a confederation of labor in 1906. Some unions depended heavily on public works schemes subsidized by government. Others, such as Federterra, relied on Giolitti’s reform legislation favoring cooperatives and on contracts provided by Socialist councils. All the major Socialist institutions became reliant on government willingness not…

General Confederation of Labour, French labour union federation. Formed in 1895, the CGT united in 1902 with the syndicalist-oriented Federation of Labour Exchanges (Fédération des Bourses du Travail). In its early years the CGT was racked by ideological divisions between socialist, syndicalist

General Confederation of Labour, major labour-union federation in Argentina. The CGT was formed in 1930. Its leadership was contested by socialist, anarchist, and syndicalist factions from 1935 until the early 1940s, when it came under the control of Juan Perón, an ambitious Cabinet minister. When

General Confederation of Labour–Workers’ Force, French labour-union federation that is most influential among white-collar civil servants and clerical workers. It was formed in 1948 after a split within the General Confederation of Labour (Confédération Générale du Travail, or CGT). In 1947 the

Adventist: Institutions: The General Conference, the church’s main governing body, has its headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, where it was moved in 1989 from Washington, D.C. The General Conference meets quadrennially. Local congregations in a particular area or country are associated in conferences, and each conference is in…

information system: Information systems controls: General controls apply to information system activities throughout an organization. The most important general controls are the measures that control access to computer systems and the information stored there or transmitted over telecommunications networks. General controls include administrative measures that restrict employees’ access to only…

canon law: The formative period in the East: , the ecumenical Council of Nicaea). Though these councils are known primarily for their consideration of doctrinal conflicts, they also ruled on practical matters (such as jurisdictional and institutional concerns), which were set down in canons. In the West there was less imperial interference, and the bishop…

General Council of Congregational Christian Churches, Protestant church in the United States, organized in 1931 by a merger of the National Council of the Congregational Churches and the General Convention of the Christian Church. It was merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church into the

barrister: The General Council of the Bar, also called the Bar Council, is the representative body of barristers in England and Wales. It acts in matters of general concern to the profession and, through the independent Bar Standards Board, regulates the professional conduct of its members. A…

Andorra: Geography: …Andorra’s unicameral legislature, the 28-member General Council of the Valleys, were responsible for internal administration and functioned as both an informal legislature and a cabinet headed by a prime minister. The 1993 constitution, approved by Andorran voters in a referendum, changed this structure and transferred most of the powers of…

Sōhyō, trade-union federation that was the largest in Japan. Sōhyō was founded in 1950 as a democratic trade-union movement in opposition to the communist leadership of its predecessor organization. It rapidly became the most powerful labour organization in postwar Japan and formed close ties with

United States: The New England colonies: …in the colony to a General Court composed of only a small number of shareholders in the company. On arriving in Massachusetts, many disfranchised settlers immediately protested against this provision and caused the franchise to be widened to include all church members. These “freemen” were given the right to vote…

court-martial: A general court-martial can be convened only by the commander of a major military installation, by a general or flag officer, or by some higher military authority. A special court-martial can be convened by a regiment-grade or brigade-grade officer. Whereas a general court-martial can try any…

Dutch language: Standard Dutch (Standaardnederlands or Algemeen Nederlands) is used for public and official purposes, including instruction in schools and universities. A wide variety of local dialects are used in informal situations, such as among family, friends, and others from the same village (these exist in far…

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), European Union (EU) law surrounding data privacy and security, which was adopted by the European Parliament in 2016 and came into effect in May 2018. The legislation marked a major worldwide precedent; it was particularly notable for establishing a

Madrid: Administration and social conditions: The resulting General Ordinance Plan (Plan General de Ordenación) attempted to establish a long-term, full-scale scheme for future directed growth, aiming not only to modernize the infrastructure of essential services but also to improve the quality of life in the city. Local administration is under the direction…

dentistry: Europe: …Kingdom is granted by the General Dental Council (GDC) to those holding (1) a degree or diploma in dentistry or dental surgery conferred in Great Britain or Northern Ireland, (2) a degree or diploma in dentistry or dental surgery granted elsewhere that has been recognized by the GDC, or (3)…

gibbet: …intended to act as a long-lasting deterrent, they were sturdily built, and preventive measures were put in place to discourage friends or family members of the executed from removing their bodies. Thus gibbets would often become local landmarks, with either the structures themselves (Gibbet Hill, Gallows Lane) or the name…

Lewis Milestone: Films of the 1930s: The General Died at Dawn was one of 1936’s best pictures, an entertaining thriller set in turbulent China, with Gary Cooper as a soldier of fortune who aids an uprising against a ruthless warlord (Akim Tamiroff, in an Oscar-nominated turn). Clifford Odets’s screenplay was sometimes…

Germany: The consolidation of Brandenburg-Prussia and Austria: …Elector, its capstone being the General Directory, set up in 1723. Tied to regional and local organs by a network of commissioners, this supreme body of state policy and administration directed industry, trade, finance, internal affairs, and military matters in all the state’s territories. Upper-level bureaucrats came entirely from the…

General Dynamics Corp., major American defense contractor. The company’s headquarters are in Falls Church, Va. The original company, the Electric Boat Company, was founded in 1899 and built the Holland, the first submarine purchased by the U.S. Navy, in 1900. Electric Boat continued to build

bomber: …two countries developed the medium-range F-111 (designated a fighter but actually a strategic bomber) and Tu-26 Backfire and the long-range B-1 and Tu-160 Blackjack, respectively. These planes were designed to slip under early-warning radar at low level and to approach military targets using terrain-following radars and inertial-guidance systems. They could…

education: Traditional movements: …essentialism was what was called humanistic, or liberal, education in its traditional form. Although many intellectuals argued the case, Robert M. Hutchins, president and then chancellor of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951, and Mortimer J. Adler, professor of the philosophy of law at the same institution, were…

United Kingdom: Political process: …easy because the timing of general elections is unpredictable.

General Electric Company (GE) is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, that was incorporated in 1892 following a series of mergers between various companies owned and operated by Thomas Alva Edison and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company. For well over a century,

General Electric Company (GE) is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Boston, Massachusetts, that was incorporated in 1892 following a series of mergers between various companies owned and operated by Thomas Alva Edison and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company. For well over a century,

chromatography: Gas chromatography: This is termed the general elution problem. A simple solution is to increase the column temperature during the course of the separation. The well-resolved, highly volatile solutes are removed from the column at the lower temperatures before the low-volatility solutes leave the origin at the column inlet. This technique…

Enrico Barone: …expanded on the concepts of general equilibrium previously formulated by French economist Léon Walras.

Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, conservative Lutheran church in the United States, formed in 1892 as a federation of three conservative synods of German background and then known as the General Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan and Other States. The Wisconsin Synod

Charles E. Spearman: …psychologist who theorized that a general factor of intelligence, g, is present in varying degrees in different human abilities.

Histadrut, Israeli labour organization that includes workers in the cooperative and collective agricultural settlements as well as in most industries. Organized in 1920, Histadrut is the largest voluntary organization in Israel and the most important economic body in the state. Its activities

Iraq: Labour and taxation: …authorized labour organization is the General Federation of Trade Unions (GFTU), established in 1987, which is affiliated with the International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions and the World Federation of Trade Unions. Under the Baʿath government, workers in the private sector were allowed to join only local unions associated with…

Trades Union Congress: …two new separate bodies: the General Federation of Trade Unions, founded in 1899 as an insurance fund for strikes, and the Labour Representation Committee, founded in 1900 and in 1906 renamed the Labour Party. The latter sponsored candidates for Parliament until after 1918, when it became a national political party.

General Federation of Women’s Clubs International (GFWC), umbrella organization in the United States founded in 1890 to coordinate its members’ efforts at promoting volunteer community service. During its more than century-long existence, the federation has focused its activities on areas such as

General Federation of Women’s Clubs International (GFWC), umbrella organization in the United States founded in 1890 to coordinate its members’ efforts at promoting volunteer community service. During its more than century-long existence, the federation has focused its activities on areas such as

Syria: Labor and taxation: The General Federation of Workers was founded in 1938 and has grown tremendously in power and scope. Composed only of industrial employees, it is represented on industrial boards and is responsible for a wide range of social services. There is also a federation for artisans and…

History of film: Early growth of the film industry: …a week—the MPPC formed the General Film Company, which integrated the licensed distributors into a single corporate entity. Although it was clearly monopolistic in practice and intent, the MPPC helped to stabilize the American film industry during a period of unprecedented growth and change by standardizing exhibition practice, increasing the…

Tokelau: Government and society: Legislative power rests with the General Fono (assembly), whose members are elected every three years by universal adult suffrage and represent the entire territory. The General Fono holds several annual sessions that can take place on any one of the atolls. It handles budgets, exercises a limited rule-making power, and…

General Foods Corporation, former American manufacturer of packaged grocery and meat products. Since 1989, General Foods product lines have been sold by Kraft Foods Inc. The company was incorporated in 1922, having developed from the earlier Postum Cereal Co. Ltd., founded by C.W. Post (1854–1914)

chemical formula: A general formula is a type of empirical formula that represents the composition of any member of an entire class of compounds. Every member of the class of paraffin hydrocarbons is, for example, composed of hydrogen and carbon, the number of hydrogen atoms always being two…

Dayton Accords, peace agreement reached on Nov. 21, 1995, by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, ending the war in Bosnia and outlining a General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It preserved Bosnia as a single state made up of two parts, the Bosniak-Croat

B. Traven: …kommt aus dem Dschungel (1940; General from the Jungle).

ideal gas law, relation between the pressure P, volume V, and temperature T of a gas in the limit of low pressures and high temperatures, such that the molecules of the gas move almost independently of each other. In such a case, all gases obey an equation of state known as the ideal gas law: PV =

Social Democratic Party of Germany: History: …merger in 1875 of the General German Workers’ Union, led by Ferdinand Lassalle, and the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, headed by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht. In 1890 it adopted its current name, the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The party’s early history was characterized by frequent and intense internal…

Social Democratic Party of Germany: History: …merger in 1875 of the General German Workers’ Union, led by Ferdinand Lassalle, and the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, headed by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht. In 1890 it adopted its current name, the Social Democratic Party of Germany. The party’s early history was characterized by frequent and intense internal…

universal grammar, theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the acquisition of language. The definition of universal grammar has evolved considerably since first it was postulated and, moreover, since the 1940s, when it became a specific object of modern linguistic research.

General Grant National Memorial, mausoleum of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in New York City, standing on a bluff overlooking the Hudson River. It was designed by John H. Duncan. The monument, 150 feet (46 m) high in gray granite, was erected at a cost of $600,000 raised by public contributions.