Frank M. Andrews: …his command (1935–39) of the General Headquarters Air Force, the first U.S. independent air striking force.

blue law: Peters’s General History of Connecticut (1781), which purported to list the stiff Sabbath regulations at New Haven, Connecticut; the work was printed on blue paper. A more probable derivation is based on an 18th-century usage of the word blue meaning “rigidly moral” in a disparaging sense.…

Jan Swammerdam: …entomological research (1667–73), he completed A General History of Insects, popularly recognized as a major work at the time, and the Bible of Nature, one of the finest collections of microscopical observations ever published. In these works he corrected the physiologist Marcello Malpighi’s conceptions of the insect brain and nervous…

Charles Burney: …spare from teaching to his General History of Music, published between 1776 and 1789 in four volumes. Among the many musicians with whom Burney consulted on his trips to the continent were Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father, Johann Adolph Hasse, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Frederick II (the Great) (a renowned…

Latin American literature: Historians of the New World: …Historia general del Perú (General History of Peru).

Juan de Mariana: …was translated into English as The General History of Spain (1699). It is less a great history than a work of art, combining history, anecdote, and legend in a fluid and readable prose that makes it a work of sustained interest.

Sir John Hawkins: Hawkins’s General History of the Science and Practice of Music occupied him for 16 years. It was published in five volumes in 1776, a few weeks before Charles Burney’s celebrated General History of Music. Hawkins’s book continues to be invaluable as a mine of detailed information,…

American Broadcasting Company: Focus on television: …Life to Live (1968–2012) and General Hospital (1963– ).

hospital: The general hospital: General hospitals may be academic health facilities or community-based entities. They are general in the sense that they admit all types of medical and surgical cases, and they concentrate on patients with acute illnesses needing relatively short-term care. Community general hospitals vary in…

wage and salary: Human-capital theory: …introduced the important distinction between “general” human capital (which is valued by all potential employers) and “firm-specific” human capital (which involves skills and knowledge that have productive value in only one particular company). Formal education produces general human capital, while on-the-job training usually produces both types. To understand investments in…

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: Early life and education: …révolution au XIXe siècle (1851; The General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century, 1923). The latter—in its portrait of a federal world society with frontiers abolished, national states eliminated, and authority decentralized among communes or locality associations, and with free contracts replacing laws—presents perhaps more completely than any…

General Italian Confederation of Labour , Italy’s largest trade-union federation. It was organized in Rome in 1944 as a nationwide labour federation to replace the dissolved Fascist syndicates. Its founders, who included communists, social democrats, and Christian Democrats, intended it to be the

B. Traven: …kommt aus dem Dschungel (1940; General from the Jungle).

computer: Application software: …Systems Group started developing a General Ledger program, perhaps the first serious business software, which sold for $995. The company shipped its software in ziplock bags with a manual, a practice that became common in the industry. General Ledger began to familiarize business managers with microcomputers. Another important program was…

Suriname: Suriname since independence: …parties sought to persuade the General Liberation and Development Party (Algemene Bevrijdings- en Ontwikkelingspartij; ABOP), which had won eight seats in the election, to join them in coalition rule. In July the ABOP chose to enter a coalition government with the VHP. In his former capacities as police commissioner and…

lien: The general lien extends not only to the value of services rendered in regard to the specific property but also to all indebtedness on general account by the property owner to the creditor. Whether a creditor had a general or specific possessory lien came to be…

theatre: The influence of Appia and Craig: …lighting under three headings: a general or acting light, which gave diffused illumination; formative light, which cast shadows; and imitated lighting effects painted on the scenery. He saw the illusionist theatre as employing only the first and last of these types. Appia proposed replacing illusory scene painting with three-dimensional structures…

medical education: History of medical education: It established the General Medical Council, which thenceforth controlled admission to the medical register and thus had great powers over medical education and examinations. Further interest in medicine grew from these advances, which opened the way for the discoveries of Louis Pasteur, which showed the relation of microorganisms…

General Mills, Inc., leading American producer of packaged consumer foods, especially flour, breakfast cereals, snacks, prepared mixes, and similar products. It is also one of the largest food service manufacturers in the world. Headquarters are in Minneapolis, Minnesota. General Mills was

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

John Jakob Raskob: …stimulated sales by establishing the General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC), which allowed dealers to finance their inventory of cars and offer credit and long-term financing to their customers. Raskob’s influence in the company declined, however, after the recession crisis of 1920 and the appointment that year of du Pont as…

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

General Motors (GM), American corporation that was the world’s largest motor-vehicle manufacturer for much of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It operates manufacturing and assembly plants and distribution centres throughout the United States, Canada, and many other countries. The company’s major

Eero Saarinen: Life: …immediate renown, was the vast General Motors Technical Center in Warren, Michigan. Here Saarinen arranged five major building complexes, each for a different research study, around a 22-acre (9-hectare) reflecting pool. Strips of planted forest rimmed the 320-acre (130-hectare) site. The precision and modular rhythm of the low buildings recall…

museum: General museums: General museums hold collections in more than one subject and are therefore sometimes known as multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary museums. Many were founded in the 18th, 19th, or early 20th century. Most originated in earlier private collections and reflected the encyclopaedic spirit of the…

Libya: Establishment of the General National Congress: …would be known as the General National Congress (GNC). The National Forces Alliance, a secular party led by Mahmoud Jibril, a former TNC official and interim prime minister, won the largest number of seats. On August 8 the TNC formally handed over power to the GNC.

revenue bond: Unlike general obligation bonds, which carry the full faith and credit of the issuing agency and are repaid through a variety of tax revenues, revenue bonds are payable from specified revenues only, usually the revenues from the facility for which the bond was originally issued.

John Guare: His one-act play The General of Hot Desire, first performed in 1998, is an unsympathetic adaptation of the Bible that takes as one of its starting points Shakespeare’s sonnet number 154, from which the title of the play is taken. Lake Hollywood (2000) chronicles the lives of dissatisfied…

Ismail Kadare: …i ushtrisë së vdekur (1963; The General of the Dead Army [film 1983]), his best-known novel, was his first to achieve an international audience. It tells the story of an Italian general on a grim mission to find and return to Italy the remains of his country’s soldiers who died…

war crime: Definition and conceptual development: …of war crimes was the Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field—also known as the “Lieber Code” after its main author, Francis Lieber—which was issued by U.S. Pres. Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War and distributed among Union military personnel in 1863. For…

Madrid: Administration and social conditions: The resulting General Ordinance Plan (Plan General de Ordenación) attempted to establish a long-term, full-scale scheme for future directed growth, aiming not only to modernize the infrastructure of essential services but also to improve the quality of life in the city. Local administration is under the direction…

Understanding the nuanced world of partnerships and how they work can be a bit overwhelming, even if you’re a sophisticated investor and business person. After all, that’s why you pay your attorney and accountant. Still, although you might rely on financial professionals to help you navigate the

Yemen: Political process: …party by far is the General People’s Congress; other parties include Iṣlāḥ (the Yemeni Congregation for Reform), the Nasserite Unionist Party, and several socialist organizations. Al-Ḥaqq Party, active in the 1990s, represented the interests of a Zaydī revivalist movement that began in the 1980s; it precipitated the rise of the…

Jubail: …two Saudi government agencies, the General Petroleum and Mineral Organization (PETROMIN) and the Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), is composed of some 16 primary industries. These industries include factories producing steel, gasoline, diesel fuel, petrochemicals, lubricating oil, and chemical fertilizers. In addition to these plants, secondary and support industries were…

Universal Postal Union (UPU), specialized agency of the United Nations that aims to organize and improve postal service throughout the world and to ensure international collaboration in this area. Among the principles governing its operation as set forth in the Universal Postal Convention and the

family practice, field of medicine that stresses comprehensive primary health care, regardless of the age or sex of the patient, with special emphasis on the family unit. Family practice as it is presently defined has only been officially recognized since 1969, but it developed from older models of

Spain: Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, 1276–1479: …the document known as the General Privilege. Peter agreed to convene the Cortes each year and confirmed the right of the justicia to hear the lawsuits of the nobility. He made similar promises in Valencia and Catalonia, where the allegiance of his subjects was more secure. After the pope proclaimed…

means-ends analysis: History: …scientists called their model the General Problem Solver (GPS). GPS would recursively apply heuristic techniques in solving a given problem and conduct a means-ends assessment after each subproblem was solved to determine whether it was closer to the intended solution. Through this process, GPS could find solutions to mathematical theorems,…

Karl Jaspers: Research in clinical psychiatry: …completed the Allgemeine Psychopathologie (General Psychopathology, 1965) two years later. The work was distinguished by its critical approach to the various methods available for the study of psychiatry and by its attempt to synthesize these methods into a cohesive whole.

open source: Hacker culture: …his ends, Stallman wrote the General Public License (GPL), a document attached to computer code that would legally require anyone distributing that code to make available any of their modifications and distributed works (a property Stallman called “copyleft”). In effect, he sought to codify the hacker ethos. By the end…

homologous recombination, the exchange of genetic material between two strands of DNA that contain long stretches of similar base sequences. Homologous recombination occurs naturally in eukaryotic organisms, bacteria, and certain viruses and is a powerful tool in genetic engineering. In eukaryotes,

general relativity, part of the wide-ranging physical theory of relativity formed by the German-born physicist Albert Einstein. It was conceived by Einstein in 1916. General relativity is concerned with gravity, one of the fundamental forces in the universe. Gravity defines macroscopic behaviour,

General San Martín, cabecera (county seat) and partido (county) of Gran (Greater) Buenos Aires, eastern Argentina. It lies immediately northwest of the city of Buenos Aires, in Buenos Aires provincia (province). The county seat and county began as an early rural settlement centred on the

General San Martín: …years later the county of San Martín (named for the Argentine liberator) was created. In 1911 General San Martín town was given official city status, and since then it has grown into a major industrial centre, processing and manufacturing linseed oil, textiles, dairy products, frozen meat, cigarettes, liquor, and a…

General Santos, city, southern Mindanao, Philippines. The city is named for General Paulino Santos, who directed the pioneer settlement (mostly by Christian Filipino migrants) and development of the Koronadal Valley that began in the mid-1930s. General Santos city is located at the head of

Austria: Reforms, 1763–80: …1774 Maria Theresa issued the General School Regulation for the Austrian lands, establishing a system of elementary schools, secondary schools, and normal schools to train teachers. The implementation of this regulation was difficult owing to a lack of teachers, resistance on the part of lords and peasants alike, and a…

Organization of American States: Structure: The General Secretariat is the administrative backbone of the OAS and is headed by a secretary-general elected to a five-year term. The chief policy-making body of the OAS is the General Assembly, which holds annual meetings at which member states are represented by their foreign ministers…

Shin Bet, one of the three major intelligence organizations of Israel, along with Aman (military intelligence) and Mossad (foreign intelligence). The Shin Bet is concerned with internal security and counterintelligence and focuses on potential sabotage, terrorist activities, and security matters of

Committee of General Security, organ of the French Revolutionary government. It directed the political police and Revolutionary justice. Founded by the National Convention in 1792, the committee administered the Reign of Terror of 1793–94, along with the Committee of Public Safety. See also

general semantics, a philosophy of language-meaning that was developed by Alfred Korzybski (1879–1950), a Polish-American scholar, and furthered by S.I. Hayakawa, Wendell Johnson, and others; it is the study of language as a representation of reality. Korzybski’s theory was intended to improve the

India: Nature and causes of the rebellion: In addition, the General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 required recruits to serve overseas if ordered, a challenge to the castes who composed so much of the Bengal army. To these points may be added the fact that the British garrison in Bengal had been reduced at this…

General Services Administration (GSA), executive agency of the U.S. federal government that manages equipment and property. Established in 1949, the GSA is responsible for purchasing and distributing supplies to government agencies and maintaining supplies of critical materials. It also oversees

Sequoia National Park: …park is known as the General Sherman Tree and is thought to be 2,300 to 2,700 years old. Although the General Sherman Tree, 274.9 feet (83.8 metres) high, is not as tall as some of the California coast redwoods and its circumference at its base (102.6 feet, or 31.3 metres)…

Albion W. Small: …whose ideas strongly influenced Small’s General Sociology (1905).

human nervous system: Functional types of spinal nerves: General somatic afferent receptors are sensitive to pain, thermal sensation, touch and pressure, and changes in the position of the body. (Pain and temperature sensation coming from the surface of the body is called exteroceptive, while sensory information arising from tendons, muscles, or joint capsules…

human nervous system: Functional types of spinal nerves: General somatic efferent fibers originate from large ventral-horn cells and distribute to skeletal muscles in the body wall and in the extremities. General visceral efferent fibers also arise from cell bodies located within the spinal cord, but they exit only at thoracic and upper lumbar…

general staff, in the military, a group of officers that assists the commander of a division or larger unit by formulating and disseminating his policies, transmitting his orders, and overseeing their execution. Normally a general staff is organized along functional lines, with separate sections

Sayeret Matkal, elite commando unit of the Israeli Defense Force (IDF) founded in 1957 by IDF officer Avraham Arnan, who petitioned the IDF General Staff for a combat unit in enemy territory to conduct top secret intelligence-gathering missions. Since its founding, the unit has carried out numerous

general store, retail store in a small town or rural community that carries a wide variety of goods, including groceries. In the United States the general store was the successor of the early trading post, which served the pioneers and early settlers. Located at a crossroads or in a village, it

general strike, stoppage of work by a substantial proportion of workers in a number of industries in an organized endeavour to achieve economic or political objectives. A strike covering only one industry cannot properly be called a general strike. The idea of a general strike, as a deliberate part

Stanley Baldwin: When the miners went on strike (May 4, 1926) and they were supported with sympathetic strikes in other vital industries, Baldwin proclaimed a state of emergency, organized volunteers to maintain essential services, and refused to negotiate further with labour until the strike was called off (it ended May 12, 1926).…

General Stud Book, in horse breeding, prototype of the breeding record of purebred horses, or studbook

surgery: Present-day surgery: …medical specialties involving surgery are general surgery, plastic surgery, orthopedic surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, neurosurgery, thoracic surgery, colon and rectal surgery, otolaryngology, ophthalmology, and urology. General surgery is the parent specialty and now centres on operations involving the stomach, intestines, breast, blood vessels in the extremities, endocrine glands, tumours of

Court of Augmentations: …Augmentations was joined with the Court of General Surveyors, which had been established in 1542 out of the old household surveyors department to administer crown lands, handle cases, and register leases.

Anglican Church of Canada: A unifying organization, the General Synod, was established in 1893 in Toronto for the two provinces and 15 dioceses then in existence.

Oman: Transportation and telecommunication: Government-owned Omantel (formerly known as General Telecommunications Organization) is Oman’s primary telecommunications provider. During the 1990s it instituted plans that increased the number of phone lines, expanded the fibre-optic network, and introduced digital technology. The Internet became available in 1997, with Omantel as the official provider.…

GTE Corporation, U.S. holding company for several U.S. and international telephone companies. It also manufactures electronic consumer and industrial equipment. It is headquartered in Stamford, Connecticut. General Telephone was founded in 1926 as Associated Telephone Utilities by Sigurd Odegard, a

universal, in philosophy, an entity used in a certain type of metaphysical explanation of what it is for things to share a feature, attribute, or quality or to fall under the same type or natural kind. A pair of things resembling each other in any of these ways may be said to have (or to

general relativity, part of the wide-ranging physical theory of relativity formed by the German-born physicist Albert Einstein. It was conceived by Einstein in 1916. General relativity is concerned with gravity, one of the fundamental forces in the universe. Gravity defines macroscopic behaviour,

Travis Hirschi: Gottfredson resulted in A General Theory of Crime (1990), which defined crime as “acts of force or fraud undertaken in pursuit of self-interest.” Arguing that all crime can be explained as a combination of criminal opportunity and low self-control, Gottfredson and Hirschi hypothesized that a child’s level of…

economics: Money: …on traditional thinking in his General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1935–36) was this quantity theory of money. Keynes asserted that the link between the money stock and the level of national income was weak and that the effect of the money supply on prices was virtually nil—at least…

Andrey Nikolayevich Kolmogorov: Life: …most important of these papers, “General Theory of Measure and Probability Theory”—which aimed to develop a rigorous, axiomatic foundation for probability—into an influential monograph Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung (1933; Foundations of the Theory of Probability, 1950). In 1929, having completed his doctorate, Kolmogorov was elected a member of the Institute of…

axiology: Ralph Barton Perry’s book General Theory of Value (1926) has been called the magnum opus of the new approach. A value, he theorized, is “any object of any interest.” Later, he explored eight “realms” of value: morality, religion, art, science, economics, politics, law, and custom.

topology: Basic concepts of general topology: In some cases, the objects considered in topology are ordinary objects residing in three- (or lower-) dimensional space. For example, a simple loop in a plane and the boundary edge of a square in a plane are topologically equivalent, as may…

transcription factor: Basal, or general, transcription factors are necessary for RNA polymerase to function at a site of transcription in eukaryotes. They are considered the most basic set of proteins needed to activate gene transcription, and they include a number of proteins, such as TFIIA (transcription factor…

conflict of laws: Recognition and enforcement of judgments: …dealt with in bilateral or multilateral treaties (except in the United States, which is not party to any judgments-recognition treaty). National legal systems will ordinarily recognize a judgment rendered in a foreign country (sometimes on the condition of reciprocity), provided that the rendering court had jurisdiction (as measured by the…

organized labour: Origins in Britain: …developed a movement toward “general unionism,” directed both at establishing organization nationally and at drawing the various organized trades into alliance with one another. The pioneer in this movement was the cotton spinners’ leader, John Doherty, but much of its impetus derived from Robert Owen, whose ideal of cooperative…

Bund, Jewish socialist political movement founded in Vilnius in 1897 by a small group of workers and intellectuals from the Jewish Pale of tsarist Russia. The Bund called for the abolition of discrimination against Jews and the reconstitution of Russia along federal lines. At the time of the

General Union of Palestinian Women (GUPW), umbrella organization for Palestinian women’s groups that was founded in 1965 as part of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Its general goal is to raise the status of women in Palestinian society by increasing their participation in social,

Pablo Iglesias: He also headed the socialist-affiliated Unión General de Trabajadores (General Union of Workers), organized in 1888.

Zárate, city, northeastern Buenos Aires provincia (province), eastern Argentina. It is located on the Paraná de las Palmas River, a channel of the lower Paraná River delta emptying into the Río de la Plata estuary northwest of Buenos Aires. Founded in 1825 as Rincón de Zárate, the settlement was

Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, 1st Baronet: His General View of the Criminal Law of England (1863) was the first attempt after Sir William Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765–69) to state systematically the principles of English criminal jurisprudence. Even more ambitious was his History of the Criminal Law of England…

human nervous system: Functional types of spinal nerves: ) General visceral afferent receptors are found in organs of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; their fibers convey, for example, pain information from the digestive tract. Both types of afferent fiber project centrally from cell bodies in dorsal-root ganglia.

human nervous system: Functional types of spinal nerves: General visceral efferent fibers also arise from cell bodies located within the spinal cord, but they exit only at thoracic and upper lumbar levels or at sacral levels (more specifically, at levels T1–L2 and S2–S4). Fibers from T1–L2 enter the sympathetic trunk, where they either…

common good, that which benefits society as a whole, in contrast to the private good of individuals and sections of society. From the era of the ancient Greek city-states through contemporary political philosophy, the idea of the common good has pointed toward the possibility that certain goods,

general will, in political theory, a collectively held will that aims at the common good or common interest. The general will is central to the political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and an important concept in modern republican thought. Rousseau distinguished the general will from the

GMB, one of the largest trade unions in Great Britain and one of the two giant general unions (the other being Unite). The National Union of General and Municipal Workers (NUGMW) was formed in 1924 by the merger of the National Union of Gas and General Workers, the National Amalgamated Union of

The General, American silent comedy film, released in 1927, starring and directed by comedian Buster Keaton, and cited by many film historians as one of the greatest American movies. It is set during the American Civil War (1861–65) and highlights the theme of personal redemption. Keaton played

Bob Knight was an American collegiate basketball coach whose 902 career National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) coaching victories are among the most in men’s basketball history. Knight played basketball and football in high school, and he was a reserve on the Ohio State University national

John Boorman: Later career and honors: …Beyond Rangoon (1995), Boorman directed The General (1998), a biopic about the legendary Irish criminal Martin Cahill, portrayed by Brendan Gleeson; Voight was cast as the policeman who has sworn to bring him to justice. The acclaimed crime drama earned Boorman another best director award from Cannes. He next helmed…

aerospace industry: General aviation aircraft: By far the world’s largest market for general aviation aircraft is the United States, with about 190,000 such aircraft (more than 70 percent single-piston-engine types) in active use in the late 1990s. Annually, these aircraft accounted for more than 27 million flight…

basso continuo: Daube’s General-Bass (1756), the style of improvised accompaniment was brought to its height by J.S. Bach: “He knew how to introduce a point of imitation so ingeniously in either right or left hand and how to bring in so unexpected a countertheme, that the listener would…

bomb: Conventional bomb types: General-purpose bombs combine the effects of both blast and fragmentation and hence can be used against a wide variety of targets. They are probably the commonest type of bomb used. Armour-piercing bombs have a thick case and a pointed tip and are used to penetrate…

pedagogy: The organization of instruction: …led to the concepts of general-purpose classrooms, open-plan teaching, and team teaching. The idea of general-purpose classrooms starts from the assumption that the school curriculum can be divided into a few large areas of allied intellectual interests, such as the humanities, languages, and sciences. The total resources available for teaching…

machine gun: The medium machine gun, or general-purpose machine gun, is belt-fed, mounted on a bipod or tripod, and fires full-power rifle ammunition. Through World War II the term “heavy machine gun” designated a water-cooled machine gun that was belt-fed, handled by a special squad of several soldiers,…

international relations: The general-system perspective: The so-called general-system perspective on international relations, which attempts to develop a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of the relations between states, may be compared to the map of a little-explored continent. Outlines, broad features, and a continental delineation are not in question,…

Marcel Dassault: His aircraft-manufacturing company, Générale Aéronautique Marcel Dassault, led the postwar revival of the French aircraft industry, producing Europe’s first supersonic plane, the Mystère, as well as the highly successful line of delta-winged military aircraft called Mirages (from 1956). The various Mirage warplanes proved very popular among neutral and…

Democratic Republic of the Congo: Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo: …a newly created state company, Générale des Carrières et des Mines (Gécamines), but daily operations were contracted out to a private management company created by the former UMHK.

Alhambra: The palace and grounds: …of the Sun”) is the Generalife (from Arabic: Jannat al-ʿArīf [“Garden of the Architect”]), constructed in the early 14th century as a summer palace. The complex is centred on picturesque courtyards such as the Patio del Ciprés de la Sultana (Court of the Sultana’s Cypress). Terraced gardens, pools, and fountains…

biodiversity loss: Ecological effects: On the other hand, generalist species (those adapted to a wide variety of habitats, food resources, and environmental conditions) and species favoured by human beings (i.e., livestock, pets, crops, and ornamental plants) become the major players in ecosystems vacated by specialist species. As specialist species and unique species (as…