gerrymandering, in U.S. politics, the practice of drawing the boundaries of electoral districts in a way that gives one political party an unfair advantage over its rivals (political or partisan gerrymandering) or that dilutes the voting power of members of ethnic or linguistic minority groups

Midi-Pyrénées: Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, Haute-Garonne, and Ariège. In 2016 Midi-Pyrénées was joined with the région of Languedoc-Roussillon to form the new administrative entity of Occitanie.

Rangers, Scottish professional football (soccer) club based in Glasgow. The club is the most successful team in the world in terms of domestic league championships won, with more than 50. It is known for its fierce rivalry with its Glaswegian neighbour, Celtic. The club was founded in 1872 and

quantum computer: …the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Neil Gershenfeld of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Mark Kubinec of the University of California at Berkeley created the first quantum computer (2-qubit) that could be loaded with data and output a solution. Although their system was coherent for only a few nanoseconds…

Gershom ben Judah was an eminent rabbinical scholar who proposed a far-reaching series of legal enactments (taqqanot) that profoundly molded the social institutions of medieval European Jewry. He was called the light of the exile and also Rabbenu (“Our Teacher,” a title of reverence). As head of

Josel of Rosheim was a famous shtadlan (advocate who protected the interests and pled the cause of the Jewish people). Through persistent legal exertions, he aborted many incipient acts of persecution. Josel’s career as a shtadlan began in the reign of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian I and lasted

Ira Gershwin was an American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, George Gershwin, on more than 20 Broadway musicals and motion pictures until George’s death (1937) and who later collaborated on films and plays with others—Moss Hart, Kurt Weill, Jerome Kern, Harry Warren, and Harold

George Gershwin was one of the most significant and popular American composers of all time. He wrote primarily for the Broadway musical theatre, but important as well are his orchestral and piano compositions in which he blended, in varying degrees, the techniques and forms of classical music with

Ira Gershwin was an American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, George Gershwin, on more than 20 Broadway musicals and motion pictures until George’s death (1937) and who later collaborated on films and plays with others—Moss Hart, Kurt Weill, Jerome Kern, Harry Warren, and Harold

George Gershwin was one of the most significant and popular American composers of all time. He wrote primarily for the Broadway musical theatre, but important as well are his orchestral and piano compositions in which he blended, in varying degrees, the techniques and forms of classical music with

George Gershwin was one of the most significant and popular American composers of all time. He wrote primarily for the Broadway musical theatre, but important as well are his orchestral and piano compositions in which he blended, in varying degrees, the techniques and forms of classical music with

Ira Gershwin was an American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, George Gershwin, on more than 20 Broadway musicals and motion pictures until George’s death (1937) and who later collaborated on films and plays with others—Moss Hart, Kurt Weill, Jerome Kern, Harry Warren, and Harold

Jean de Gerson was a theologian and Christian mystic, leader of the conciliar movement for church reform that ended the Great Schism (between the popes of Rome and Avignon). Gerson studied at the University of Paris under the noted theologian Pierre d’Ailly, later his colleague at the Council of

Latin American art: Renaissance: Juan Gersón, the artist who created these works, was once believed to be European because he has a Flemish name and skillfully executes a convincing northern Renaissance style. However, closer study of the archives revealed that Gersón was in fact indigenous. As early as one…

axis of evil: …David Frum and presidential aide Michael Gerson for use by U.S. President George W. Bush in his 2002 State of the Union address, when he asserted that

Levi ben Gershom was a French Jewish mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, and Talmudic scholar. In 1321 Levi wrote his first work, Sefer ha-mispar (“Book of the Number”), dealing with arithmetical operations, including extraction of roots. In De sinibus, chordis et arcubus (1342; “On Sines,

Jean de Gerson was a theologian and Christian mystic, leader of the conciliar movement for church reform that ended the Great Schism (between the popes of Rome and Avignon). Gerson studied at the University of Paris under the noted theologian Pierre d’Ailly, later his colleague at the Council of

Jog Falls, cataract of the Sharavati River, western Karnataka state, southwestern India. The Jog Falls are located 18 miles (29 km) upstream from Honavar at the river’s mouth on the Arabian Sea. As it plunges 830 feet (253 metres) into a chasm, the river splits into four cascades known as the Raja,

Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg was a German poet, critic, and theorist of the Sturm und Drang (“Storm and Stress”) literary movement. His work, Briefe über die Merkwürdigkeiten der Literatur (1766–67; “Letters About the Peculiarities of Literature”) contained the first definite formulation of the

prion: include: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker disease, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru. Prion diseases affecting animals include scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (commonly called mad cow disease), and chronic wasting disease of mule deer

Lou Gerstner is an American businessman best known for the pivotal role he played in revitalizing the ailing IBM in the mid-1990s; he served as CEO of the company from 1993 to 2002. Gerstner studied engineering at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire (B.A., 1963), where he graduated magna

Lou Gerstner is an American businessman best known for the pivotal role he played in revitalizing the ailing IBM in the mid-1990s; he served as CEO of the company from 1993 to 2002. Gerstner studied engineering at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire (B.A., 1963), where he graduated magna

Winsor McCay: …his most famous animated film, Gertie the Dinosaur (1914). Most cartoon characters of the early 20th century had their origins in newspaper comic strips; Gertie was the first featured character created specifically for the new medium. The film was composed of more than 10,000 drawings; for each, McCay drew backgrounds…

Carl Theodor Dreyer: Dreyer’s last film Gertrud (1964), is a subtle character study of a woman to whom love is all important.

Hermann Hesse: …inward and outward search in Gertrud (1910) and Rosshalde (1914). A visit to India in these years was later reflected in Siddhartha (1922), a poetic novel, set in India at the time of the Buddha, about the search for enlightenment.

Gertrude, queen of Denmark and mother of Hamlet, who is married to her first husband’s murderer in Shakespeare’s tragedy

Henry II Jasomirgott: …Conrad negotiated Henry’s marriage with Gertrude, widow of Henry the Proud, the Welf duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and in 1143 Henry was granted the duchy of Bavaria.

Austria: Contest for the Babenberg heritage: …of the Babenbergs, Frederick’s niece Gertrude and his sister Margaret, were considered to embody the claims to the heritage. Gertrude married first the Bohemian prince Vladislav and afterward the margrave Hermann of Baden, who died in 1250. After Hermann’s death, Otakar II, prince of Bohemia (from 1253 king) and a…

John Updike: …popular obsession with cinema, while Gertrude and Claudius (2000) offers conjectures on the early relationship between Hamlet’s mother and her brother-in-law. In response to the cultural shifts that occurred in the United States after the September 11 attacks, Updike released Terrorist in 2006.

9 (Lives of) Famous Cat Lovers: St. Gertrude of Nivelles: St. Gertrude was an abbess who was born in 626 ce in Nivelles, a city in present-day Belgium that was once part of the powerful Frankish kingdom of early medieval western Europe. She was the daughter of Pippin I, a mayor…

Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen was a political thinker, activist, and writer who originated the theory of a unique Russian path to socialism known as peasant populism. Herzen chronicled his career in My Past and Thoughts (1861–67), which is considered to be one of the greatest works of Russian prose.

history of the Low Countries: The secular principalities: …northern coastal regions, the Viking Gerulf was granted in about 885 the rights over a number of counties between the Meuse and the Vlie (Masalant, Kinnem, Texla, Westflinge, and a district known as Circa oras Rheni, which was, as the name implies, on both sides of the Rhine); his descendants…

Torquato Tasso: Composition of the Gerusalemme liberata.: …version of his epic (Gerusalemme conquistata, published 1593), a poetic failure that reveals the extent of Tasso’s final submission to the moral and literary prejudices of the times. He wrote two more religious poems (Lagrime di Maria Vergine and Lagrime di Gesù Cristo), and in June 1594 he went…

Gerusalemme liberata, heroic epic poem in ottava rima, the masterpiece of Torquato Tasso. He completed it in 1575 and then spent several years revising it. While he was incarcerated in the asylum of Santa Anna, part of the poem was published without his knowledge as Il Goffredo; he published the

Roman de Fauvel: …of Fauvel”), French poem by Gervais du Bus that, in addition to its literary value, is a crucial document for the history of music. The poem condemns abuses in contemporary political and religious life. Its hero is the fawn-coloured (French: fauve) stallion Fauvel, the letters of whose name are the…

Paul Gervais was a paleontologist and zoologist who succeeded Georges Cuvier and Henri de Blainville as the principal French contributor to vertebrate paleontology. Gervais was a student of Blainville, who was Cuvier’s successor as professor of comparative anatomy at the Muséum National d’Histoire

Paul Gervais was a paleontologist and zoologist who succeeded Georges Cuvier and Henri de Blainville as the principal French contributor to vertebrate paleontology. Gervais was a student of Blainville, who was Cuvier’s successor as professor of comparative anatomy at the Muséum National d’Histoire

Ricky Gervais is an English comedian best known for his work on the BBC comedy series The Office (2001–03). After completing his studies in philosophy at the University of London, Gervais fronted the little-known band Seona Dancing, which scored a minor hit in the Philippines in 1985 with the song

Gervase Of Canterbury was a monk at Christ Church, Canterbury, from 1163, compiler of chronicles having considerable value for the reign of Richard I (1189–99) and the first decade of King John’s reign (from 1199). Ordained by Thomas Becket, Gervase was sacristan of the Christ Church monastery for

Gervase Of Canterbury was a monk at Christ Church, Canterbury, from 1163, compiler of chronicles having considerable value for the reign of Richard I (1189–99) and the first decade of King John’s reign (from 1199). Ordained by Thomas Becket, Gervase was sacristan of the Christ Church monastery for

George Gervin is an American professional basketball player who rose to stardom as a member of the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the 1970s and established himself as one of the greatest guards in the history of the sport. His nickname “The Iceman”—which became

Greta Gerwig is an American actress, writer, and director who became known for the radiant artlessness of her performances in small independent movies before embarking on a successful career as a filmmaker. In 2023, she made history when her summer blockbuster film Barbie (which she wrote with her

Greta Gerwig is an American actress, writer, and director who became known for the radiant artlessness of her performances in small independent movies before embarking on a successful career as a filmmaker. In 2023, she made history when her summer blockbuster film Barbie (which she wrote with her

Heracles: …cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon, who ruled the island Erytheia (meaning red) in the far west; (11) the bringing back of the golden apples kept at the world’s end by the Hesperides; and (12) the fetching up from the underworld of the triple-headed dog Cerberus, guardian of its gates.

Armenia: Settlement patterns: Alexandropol (Gyumri), Kamo, and Goris—accounted for about one-tenth of the total population. Two-thirds of the population are now urbanized.

Al-Jazīrah, region, central-southeast Sudan. Al-Jazīrah lies just southeast of the confluence of the Blue and White Nile rivers; the Blue Nile runs northwestward through the central part of the region, and the White Nile lies to the west. The Blue Nile is joined by the Dinder River at the southern

Gerzean culture, predynastic Egyptian cultural phase given the sequence dates 40–65 by Sir Flinders Petrie and later dated c. 3400–c. 3100 bce. Evidence indicates that the Gerzean culture was a further development of the culture of the Amratian period, which immediately preceded the Gerzean.

Kanagaki Robun: …Bunkyō, a writer in the gesaku tradition (writing intended for the entertainment of the merchant and working classes of Edo). Eventually Robun was recognized as a leading gesaku writer, noted for such works as Kokkei Fuji mōde (1860–61; “A Comic Mount Fuji Pilgrimage”), a satire of popular works on pilgrimages…

Nikolaus Lenau: His later poems, Gesammelte Gedichte (1844; “Collected Poems”) and the religious epics Savonarola (1837) and Die Albigenser (1842; “The Albigensians”), deal with his relentless and unsuccessful search for order and constancy in love, nature, and faith. Following Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s death in 1832, the appearance in 1833…

property law: Concurrent individual owners: …a form of cotenancy (Gesamthandeigentum) in which the cotenants cannot partition the tenancy property, although they may alienate their shares. This form of cotenancy is used for many kinds of partnerships, including the partnership of coheirs that exists until the deceased’s estate is settled and divided.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: Early training and influence: …then give birth to a Gesamtkultur, that is, a new universal culture in a totally reformed man-made environment. These ideas motivated the “modern” movement in architecture that would soon culminate in the so-called International Style of modern architecture.

Claude Debussy: Middle period: Wagner’s conception of Gesamtkunstwerk (“total art work”) encouraged artists to refine upon their emotional responses and to exteriorize their hidden dream states, often in a shadowy, incomplete form; hence the more tenuous nature of the work of Wagner’s French disciples. It was in this spirit that Debussy wrote…

Germany: Preschool, elementary, and secondary: Many so-called Gesamtschulen (equivalent to British comprehensive schools), which were established beginning in the 1960s, are now operated in each state, though conservative areas were generally resistant to them. These Gesamtschulen are intended as an alternative to the previously rigid division into three levels, often criticized for…

Franz Schubert: Maturity of Franz Schubert: …Geister über den Wassern (Song of the Spirits over the Water) for male-voice octet with accompaniment for bass strings, D. 714, completed in February 1821.

Peter Weiss: …Gesang vom lusitanischen Popanz (1967; The Song of the Lusitanian Bogey); and American policy in the Vietnam War, Viet Nam Diskurs (1968; Discourse on Viet Nam).

Bertolt Brecht: …des Herrn Julius Caesar (1957; The Business Affairs of Mr. Julius Caesar). It concerns a scholar researching a biography of Caesar several decades after his assassination.

Josef Dobrovský: …three most important works was Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache und Literatur (1792; “History of the Bohemian Language and Literature”), which included considerations of many earlier works long suppressed because of their Protestant religious content. His grammar of Czech, Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (1809; “Learning System of the Bohemian Language”), codified…

Julius von Sachs: His Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860 (1875; History of Botany 1530–1860) remains an indispensable guide to the history of botany and to the first stages in the emergence of plant physiology as a separate discipline. Sachs was also influential in establishing the importance…

Hermann Franz Moritz Kopp: …most notable achievements, the great Geschichte der Chemie, 4 vol. (1843–47; “History of Chemistry”). Although he spent his life gathering material for a second edition, it was never finished.

Eduard Devrient: …development of the German theatre, Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (1848; “History of German Dramatic Art”).

Brothers Grimm: The Berlin period: …history of the German language, Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, in which he attempted to combine the historical study of language with the study of early history. Research into names and dialects was stimulated by Jacob Grimm’s work, as were ways of writing and spelling—for example, he used roman, rather than…

Heinrich Graetz: …English version was published as History of the Jews, 6 vol. (1891–98).

Johann Winckelmann: His general Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (1764; “History of the Art of Antiquity”) is virtually the first work to define in ancient art an organic development of growth, maturity, and decline; to include such cultural and technical factors as climate, freedom, and craftsmanship in explaining the…

August Wilhelm Ambros: His Geschichte der Musik, incomplete at his death, covered antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. Scholars completed the work from his notes.

Ludwig Pastor, baron von Campersfelden: (1886–1933; History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages).

Johann Gustav Droysen: …years on his great work, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, 14 vol. (1855–86; “History of Prussian Politics”). This history, unfinished at Droysen’s death, ends at the year 1756.

Friedrich Leopold, Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg: …final work was the immense Geschichte der Religion Jesu Christi, 15 vol. (1806–18; “History of the Religion of Jesus Christ”), which covered the development of Christianity up until the year 430. It was continued (53 vol., 1825–64) by F. von Kerz and J.N. Brischar.

Jacob Burckhardt: Works of Jacob Burckhardt: …found only partial fulfillment in Die Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien (1867; “History of the Renaissance in Italy”), which deals with architecture only. If eventually Burckhardt’s study of the Renaissance provided a basic model for the treatment of cultural history in general, the implications for art history were best realized…

Leopold von Ranke: Early career.: …produced his maiden work, the Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1514 (History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations from 1494 to 1514), which treats the struggle waged between the French and the Habsburgs for Italy as the phase that ushered in the new era. The appended…

Pavel Josef Šafařík: …and languages of the Slavs: Geschichte der slavischen Sprache und Literatur nach allen Mundarten (1826; “History of the Slavic Languages and Literature in All Dialects”); Slovanské starožitnosti (1837; “Slavic Antiquities”), better known in the German translation Slawische Altertümer (1843); Über den Ursprung und die Heimat des Glagolitismus (1858; “Concerning the…

Rudolf Bultmann: Early career: …Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition (History of the Synoptic Tradition), an analysis of the traditional material used by the Evangelists Matthew, Mark, and Luke and an attempt to trace its history in the tradition of the church prior to their use of it. This proved to be a seminal work,…

Friedrich Schiller: Historical studies: …the requisite credentials in his Geschichte des Abfalls der vereinigten Niederlande von der spanischen Regierung (1788; “History of the Revolt of the United Netherlands against the Spanish Government”). His Geschichte des dreissigjährigen Krieges (1791–93; “History of the Thirty Years’ War”) further enhanced his prestige as a historian; later it also…

bildungsroman: …Wieland’s Geschichte des Agathon (1766–67; History of Agathon). It was followed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (1795–96; Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship), which remains the classic example of the genre. Other examples are Adalbert Stifter’s Nachsommer (1857; Indian Summer) and Gottfried Keller’s Der

Simon Markovich Dubnow: This work appeared in Geschichte des Chassidismus (1931; “History of Ḥasidism”). The mature fruit of Dubnow’s historical studies is his monumental Die Weltgeschichte des jüdischen Volkes, 10 vol. (1925–30; “The World History of the Jewish People”; Eng. trans. History of the Jews), which was translated into several languages. The…

Johannes Janssen: …Janssen decided to write his Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters, 8 vol. (1876–94; “History of the German People from the Close of the Middle Ages”). His work, which ended on the eve of the Thirty Years’ War (1618), was based on the thesis that the harmonious…

Friedrich Schiller: Historical studies: His Geschichte des dreissigjährigen Krieges (1791–93; “History of the Thirty Years’ War”) further enhanced his prestige as a historian; later it also provided him with the material for his greatest drama, Wallenstein, published in 1800.

Sophie von La Roche: …first and most important work, Geschichte des Fräuleins von Sternheim (1771; History of Lady Sophia Sternheim), was the first German novel written by a woman and is considered to be among the best works from the period in which English novels, particularly those of Samuel Richardson, had great influence on…

Ludwig Tieck: …early German Romanticism are Tieck’s Die Geschichte des Herrn William Lovell, 3 vol. (1795–96; “The Story of Mr. William Lovell”), a novel in letter form that describes the moral self-destruction of a sensitive young intellectual; Karl von Berneck (1797), a five-act tragedy set in the Middle Ages; and Franz Sternbalds…

Friedrich Karl von Savigny: Legal philosophy: …year, he began publishing his Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter (1815–31; “History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages”). This monumental work, in which Savigny used rigorous critical techniques and consulted a vast body of primary sources, became the foundation of the modern study of medieval law.

Engelbert Kämpfer: …first published in English (The History of Japan, 1727) after his death and appeared in the original German only after additional translations into Latin, Dutch, and French had already appeared. Kämpfer’s manuscripts are in the British Museum.

György Lukács: During this period he wrote History and Class Consciousness (1923), in which he developed a unique Marxist philosophy of history and laid the basis for his critical literary tenets by linking the development of form in art with the history of the class struggle. Turning his back on the claims…

Clemens Brentano: …dem schönen Annerl (1817; The Story of the Just Casper and Fair Annie) displays themes from German folklore within a fantasy atmosphere. His other major works include the dramas Ponce de Leon (1801) and Die Gründung Prags (1815; “The Foundation of Prague”) and the novel Godwi (1801), which forms an…

František Palacký: Published as Geschichte von Böhmen, 5 vol. (1836–67), and Dějiny národu českého (1848–76), the work lucidly presents Palacký’s conception of the nature of Czech history as “the constant contact and conflict between the Slavs on the one hand and Rome and the Germans on the other.” Thus…

Karl Otfried Müller: His most important work, Geschichten hellenischer Stämme und Städte (1820; “History of Greek Peoples and Cities”), provides a cultural history of the civilizations of ancient Greece and emphasizes the study of myths, successfully combining the historical and allegorical methods. His other works include numerous archaeological papers, historical surveys on…

Johannes von Müller: His most important work was Geschichten Schweizerischer Eidgenossenschaft (1786–1808; “History of the Swiss Confederation”). In it he combined a comprehensive knowledge of chronicle sources (especially Aegidius Tschudi) with a terse elegance that earned him the title of the Swiss Tacitus; Tacitus, the 1st-century-ad Roman historian, was indeed his model. His…

Johann Fischart: Fischart’s principal work is the Affentheurliche und ungeheurliche Geschichtsschrift (1575)—renamed Geschichtklitterung in later editions (1582, 1590)—a greatly expanded prose version of François Rabelais’s Gargantua. Also noteworthy is his Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich (1576; “The Ship of Good Fortune from Zurich”), one of the most carefully constructed 16th-century narrative poems,…

Adobe Illustrator: …American mathematicians John Warnock and Chuck Geschke and burst onto the Silicon Valley scene with PostScript, a vector-based program—using lines defined by mathematical formulas, as opposed to individual bit- or pixel-based descriptions—that vastly improved publishing quality and was instrumental in the so-called desktop publishing revolution. PostScript’s success allowed Adobe to…

Adobe Illustrator: …American mathematicians John Warnock and Chuck Geschke and burst onto the Silicon Valley scene with PostScript, a vector-based program—using lines defined by mathematical formulas, as opposed to individual bit- or pixel-based descriptions—that vastly improved publishing quality and was instrumental in the so-called desktop publishing revolution. PostScript’s success allowed Adobe to…

Otto Weininger: …work, Geschlecht und Charakter (1903; Sex and Character), served as a sourcebook for anti-Semitic propagandists.

Fritz von Unruh: …mythical level, in the tragedy Ein Geschlecht (1916; “A Family”)—strengthened his antimilitaristic attitude and led to such later works as Heinrich von Andernach (1925), a festival play and a great plea for love among men.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Years in Berlin: …conscious of himself in individuals; Der geschlossene Handelsstaat (also 1800), an intensely socialistic treatise in favour of tariff protection; two new versions of the Wissenschaftslehre (composed in 1801 and in 1804; published posthumously), marking a great change in the character of the doctrine; Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters (1806; lectures…

Ludwig van Beethoven: Beethoven and the theatre: …Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus (The Creatures of Prometheus). Two years later he was offered a contract for an opera on a classical subject with a libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder, who had achieved fame and wealth as the librettist of Mozart’s The Magic Flute and who was then impresario of…

Louise Bates Ames: …Ames and colleagues cofounded the Gesell Institute of Child Development in New Haven, Connecticut, to continue and promote Gesell’s work. There Ames served as director of research, as associate director, and later as director. After retirement she was president of the institute’s board.

Arnold Gesell was an American psychologist and pediatrician, who pioneered the use of motion-picture cameras to study the physical and mental development of normal infants and children and whose books influenced child rearing in the United States. As director of the Clinic of Child Development at

Arnold Gesell was an American psychologist and pediatrician, who pioneered the use of motion-picture cameras to study the physical and mental development of normal infants and children and whose books influenced child rearing in the United States. As director of the Clinic of Child Development at

communitarianism: The common good versus individual rights: …liberating but impersonal societies (Gesellschaft). They warned of the dangers of anomie (normlessness) and alienation in modern societies composed of atomized individuals who had gained their liberty but lost their social moorings. Essentially the theses of Tönnies and Durkheim were supported with contemporary social-scientific data in Bowling Alone: The…

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, ideal types of social organizations that were systematically elaborated by German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies in his influential work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887; Community and Society). Tönnies’s conception of the nature of social systems is based on his

Johannes Brahms: The young pianist and music director: …was principal conductor of the Society of Friends of Music (Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde), and for three seasons he directed the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra. His choice of music was not as conservative as might have been expected, and though the “Brahmins” continued their war against Wagner, Brahms himself always spoke of…

Karl, Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein: Last years. of Karl, Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein: …für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde (Society for Earlier German History) was founded on Jan. 20, 1819, at his house in Frankfurt am Main, with him as its head and its coordinating force. The Gesellschaft has remained the most important organization for the publication of source materials on German medieval history.…

Vienna Circle: …of a cognate group, the Gesellschaft für empirische Philosophie (“Society for Empirical Philosophy”), which met in Berlin, were Carl Hempel and Hans Reichenbach. A formal declaration of the group’s intentions was issued in 1929 with the publication of the manifesto Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung: Der Wiener Kreis (“Scientific Conception of the World:…