Yevgeny Primakov: …named deputy director of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations (IMEMO), the country’s top foreign policy think tank, and in 1977 he was appointed director of the Institute of Oriental Studies. He became director of IMEMO in 1985. A leading architect of the policy of perestroika (“restructuring”), he…

Imeni Ismail Samani Peak, peak, western Pamirs, northeastern Tajikistan. Located in the Akademii Nauk Range, it rises to 24,590 feet (7,495 metres) and is the highest point in Tajikistan and in the range. It was first climbed by a Russian team in

Merina, a Malagasy people primarily inhabiting the central plateau of Madagascar. They are the most populous ethnolinguistic group on the island. The early Merina, whose origins are uncertain, entered the central plateau of Madagascar in the 15th century and soon established a small kingdom there.

Mo’Nique is an American actress, stand-up comedian, and talk-show host known for her bawdy humor and dramatic gravitas. She won an Academy Award for her supporting role in the drama Precious: Based on the Novel ‘Push’ by Sapphire (2009). Mo’Nique, the youngest of four children, was raised in

Nella Larsen was an American novelist and short-story writer of the Harlem Renaissance. Larsen was born in Chicago to a Danish mother and a West Indian father who died when she was two years old. She studied for a year at Fisk University, one of America’s historically Black colleges and

Mo’Nique is an American actress, stand-up comedian, and talk-show host known for her bawdy humor and dramatic gravitas. She won an Academy Award for her supporting role in the drama Precious: Based on the Novel ‘Push’ by Sapphire (2009). Mo’Nique, the youngest of four children, was raised in

coronal mass ejection: Observations and appearance: …the surrounding solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). Those CMEs observed in situ by spacecraft in the solar wind, called interplanetary CMEs (or ICMEs), are often characterized by twisted magnetic fields (or magnetic flux ropes); such ICMEs are commonly referred to as magnetic clouds.

International Monetary Fund (IMF), United Nations (UN) specialized agency, founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 to secure international monetary cooperation, to stabilize currency exchange rates, and to expand international liquidity (access to hard currencies). The first half of the

Tokugawa Ieyasu: Early life: …away as hostage to the Imagawa family, powerful neighbours headquartered at Sumpu (now the city of Shizuoka) to the east. However, members of the rival Oda clan to the west waylaid his entourage, and he was held for two years before being released to the Imagawa.

history of Mesopotamia: Shalmaneser III and Shamshi-Adad V of Assyria: …doors from the town of Imgur-Enlil (Balawat) in Assyria portray the course of his campaigns and other undertakings in rows of pictures, often very lifelike. Hundreds of delicately carved ivories were carried away from Phoenicia, and many of the artists along with them; these later made Kalakh a centre for…

Gustaaf Willem, baron van Imhoff was the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies (1743–50), a reformer who tried in vain to restore the decaying Dutch East India Company to prosperity. Son of a Dutch nobleman, van Imhoff went to the Indies in 1725 as a servant of the company. By 1732 he was a

Imhotep was a vizier, sage, architect, astrologer, and chief minister to Djoser (reigned c. 2592–c. 2566 bce), the first king of Egypt’s third dynasty, who was later worshipped as the god of medicine in Egypt and in Greece, where he was identified with the Greek god of medicine, Asclepius. He is

Italy: Economic policy: …new state-run holding companies, the Italian Industrial Finance Institute (Istituto Mobiliare Italiano; IMI) and the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale; IRI), were set up to bail out failing firms and to provide capital for new industrial investment; they also provided trained managers and effective financial supervision.…

imidazole, any of a class of organic compounds of the heterocyclic series characterized by a ring structure composed of three carbon atoms and two nitrogen atoms at nonadjacent positions. The simplest member of the imidazole family is imidazole itself, a compound with molecular formula C3H4N2.

imidazole: The simplest member of the imidazole family is imidazole itself, a compound with molecular formula C3H4N2.

carboxylic acid: Related compounds: Imides are more acidic than amides (it is the ―NH group that loses the hydrogen) but less acidic than carboxylic acids. Sulfonamides are amides of sulfonic acids; for example,

S.E.K. Mqhayi: …Mqhayi wrote several biographies and Imihobe nemibongo (1927; “Songs of Joy and Lullabies”), the first published collection of Xhosa poems, many of which celebrate current events or important figures. A work of fiction, U-Don Jadu (1929), describes a utopian multiracial state that combines elements of Western society and Xhosa culture.…

amine: Addition: …amines react readily to form imines (also called azomethines or Schiff bases), R2C=NR′.

iminoglycinuria, inborn impairment of the transport system of the kidney tubules, which normally reabsorb the amino acids glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline. In young children in whom this transport system fails to develop, high urinary levels of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline have

antibiotic: Imipenem: Imipenem is a β-lactam antibiotic that works by interfering with cell wall synthesis. It is highly resistant to hydrolysis by most β-lactamases. This drug must be given by intramuscular injection or intravenous infusion because it is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Imipenem is…

imipramine, synthetic drug used in the treatment of depression and enuresis (bed-wetting). Introduced into medicine in the late 1950s, imipramine was the first tricyclic antidepressant, a class named for its three-ring molecular structure. Imipramine works by inhibiting the reuptake of certain

theatre: The influence of Appia and Craig: …light, which cast shadows; and imitated lighting effects painted on the scenery. He saw the illusionist theatre as employing only the first and last of these types. Appia proposed replacing illusory scene painting with three-dimensional structures that could be altered in appearance by varying the colour, intensity, and direction of…

Imitation of Christ, a Christian devotional book written between 1390 and 1440. Although its authorship is a matter of controversy, the book is linked to the name of Thomas à Kempis. Whatever the identity of the author, he was a representative of the devotio moderna (q.v.) and its two offshoots,

counterpoint: , melodic imitation) between the voice parts.

Samuel Johnson: The Gentleman’s Magazine and early publications of Samuel Johnson: London is an “imitation” of the Roman satirist Juvenal’s third satire. (A loose translation, an imitation applies the manner and topics of an earlier poet to contemporary conditions.) Thales, the poem’s main speaker, bears some resemblance to the poet Richard Savage, of whom Johnson knew and with whom…

imitation, in psychology, the reproduction or performance of an act that is stimulated by the perception of a similar act by another animal or person. Essentially, it involves a model to which the attention and response of the imitator are directed. As a descriptive term, imitation covers a wide

mimesis, basic theoretical principle in the creation of art. The word is Greek and means “imitation” (though in the sense of “re-presentation” rather than of “copying”). Plato and Aristotle spoke of mimesis as the re-presentation of nature. According to Plato, all artistic creation is a form of

French literature: The Decadents: …Les Complaintes (1885; “Lamentations”) and L’Imitation de Notre-Dame la Lune (1886; “Imitation of Our Lady of the Moon”), are a series of variations on the Decadent themes of the flight from life, woman, and ennui, each explored through a host of recurring images (the wind, Sundays, moonlight, and the tragicomic…

Benedict Cumberbatch: From Star Trek to Alan Turing: …and logician Alan Turing in The Imitation Game, a drama that also featured Keira Knightley. For his performance, Cumberbatch received an Academy Award nomination for best actor. Also in 2014 he voiced an animated wolf in the comedy Penguins of Madagascar and reprised his role as Smaug in The Hobbit:…

leather: Artificial leather: Some of the earliest leather substitutes were invented in the 19th century. Nitrocellulose (guncotton) was developed by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1845 and was later turned into collodion (pyroxylin) in 1846 by French scientist Louis-Nicolas Ménard. Collodion was used as a…

Christianity: The problem of suffering: …specifically Christian idea of the imitation of Christ. Individual Christians are called to follow the example of Christ; incorporation into the body of Christ is granted to those who are ready to carry out within themselves Christ’s destiny of suffering, death, and resurrection. The early church’s characterization of the Christian…

Imitation of Christ, a Christian devotional book written between 1390 and 1440. Although its authorship is a matter of controversy, the book is linked to the name of Thomas à Kempis. Whatever the identity of the author, he was a representative of the devotio moderna (q.v.) and its two offshoots,

Douglas Sirk: From All That Heaven Allows to Imitation of Life: …the stir brought about by Imitation of Life (1959), the last of Sirk’s expressionist tours de force, which was based on a novel by Fannie Hurst that had been filmed previously, in 1934, by Stahl. Sirk’s version starred Lana Turner as an actress and uninterested mother whose daughter (Sandra Dee)…

John M. Stahl: Imitation of Life (1934) was a well-mounted adaptation of Hurst’s drama about racism and single parenthood, as told through the friendship of two women—one white (Claudette Colbert), the other African American (Louise Beavers); the film received an Academy Award nomination for best picture. In 1935…

Mount Hymettus, limestone mountain southeast of Athens (Modern Greek: Athína), Greece. With a peak elevation of 3,366 ft (1,026 m), the 11-mi- (18-km-) long ridge is divided into two small series of peaks by the gorge of Pirnari in the southwest. The ancient quarries of Kara marble are located near

Mount Everest: Drainage and climate: …which flows southward as the Imja River to its confluence with the Dudh Kosi River. In Tibet the Rong River originates from the Pumori and Rongbuk glaciers and the Kama River from the Kangshung Glacier: both flow into the Arun River, which cuts through the Himalayas into Nepal. The Rong,…

Roberta Bondar: …payload specialist for the first International Microgravity Laboratory Mission (IML-1), a crewed Spacelab module aimed at investigating the effects of weightlessness on living organisms and materials processing. She flew into space as a payload specialist on the Discovery space shuttle during the STS-42 mission, launching into space on January

Toronto Maple Leafs: …team led by head coach Punch Imlach and packed with future Hall of Famers (right wing and centre George Armstrong, goaltender Johnny Bower, centre Red Kelly, centre Dave Keon, defenseman Tim Horton, left wing Frank Mahovlich, left wing Bob Pulford, and defenseman

Madonna: Madonna on her own and after the 17th century: The immacolata, which in the 17th century emphasized her Immaculate Conception, or perpetual freedom from original sin, shows her as a young girl descending from the heavens, supported by a crescent moon and crowned by stars. The Madonna of the rosary, which until the 16th century…

El Greco: Later life and works of El Greco: …of the Madonna in the Immaculate Conception (1607–14), originally in the Church of San Vicente, floats heavenward in a paroxysm of ecstasy supported by long, distorted angels. The fantastic view of Toledo below, abstractly rendered, is dazzling in its ghostly moonlit brilliance, and the clusters of roses and lilies, symbols…

Immaculate Conception, Roman Catholic dogma asserting that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was preserved free from the effects of the sin of Adam (usually referred to as “original sin”) from the first instant of her conception. Although various texts in both the Old and the New Testaments have been

Bartolomé Esteban Murillo: …broad brushwork of the 1652 Immaculate Conception reflect direct visual contact with the art of the 16th-century Venetians and the Flemish Baroque painters. The St. Leandro and St. Isidoro (1655) are even further removed from the simple naturalism of his earlier Franciscan saints. These seated figures, more than life size,…

Seattle University, private, coeducational institution of higher education in Seattle, Washington, U.S. It is affiliated with the Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic church. It offers about 50 undergraduate degree programs and about 20 graduate degree programs; professional degrees are also

Franco Harris: …came to be know as the Immaculate Reception. The play occurred with 22 seconds remaining in the game and the Steelers trailing 7–6. On fourth-and-10 from the Steelers’ 40-yard line, Pittsburgh’s quarterback, Terry Bradshaw, threw a pass that was deflected toward the ground by a Raider defender before Harris appeared…

André Breton: L’Immaculée Conception (1930), written with Paul Éluard, attempted to convey a verbal impression of different types of mental disorder. Les Vases communicants (1932; “The Communicating Vessels”) and L’Amour fou (1937; “Mad Love”) explored the connection between dream and reality. Breton also wrote theoretical and critical…

immanence, in philosophy and theology, a term applied, in contradistinction to “transcendence,” to the fact or condition of being entirely within something (from Latin immanere, “to dwell in, remain”). Its most important use is for the theological conception of God as existing in and throughout the

Thomas Hardy: Poetry: …force that he called the Immanent Will. Though subsequent criticism has tended to find its structures cumbersome and its verse inert, The Dynasts remains an impressive—and highly readable—achievement, and its publication certainly reinforced both Hardy’s “national” image (he was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1910) and his enormous…

Immanuel Ben Solomon was a Hebrew poet who lived mainly in Rome and is considered the founder of secular poetic writing in Hebrew. Probably a wandering teacher by profession, he was a prolific writer of Hebrew verse, both sacred and secular (some of the latter being highly erotic), which he

New Castle: The Immanuel Church (Episcopal; 1703, rebuilt after it burned in 1980) is a historic landmark. Other colonial landmarks include Amstel House Museum (c. 1730); Old Dutch House, perhaps the state’s oldest dwelling, built in the late 1600s and now maintained as a museum; the New Castle…

teratoma: Epidemiology and pathology: …those that are classified as immature (cancerous) tend to occur more frequently in children.

sedimentary rock: Texture: Immature sandstones contain a clay matrix, and the sand-size grains are usually angular and poorly sorted. This means that a wide range of sand sizes is present. Such sandstones are characteristic of environments in which sediment is dumped and is not thereafter worked upon by…

compellence: Diplomatic, or immediate, compellence involves verbal threats and promises. Shows of force also assist this kind of coercion; realist scholars note that most diplomacy is underwritten by the unspoken possibility of military action. Demonstrative compellence involves a limited use of force coupled with the threat…

immediate constituent analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into successive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word. (A constituent is any word or construction that enters

William Lloyd Garrison: “Immediatism,” however variously it was interpreted by American reformers, condemned slavery as a national sin, called for emancipation at the earliest possible moment, and proposed schemes for incorporating the freedmen into American society. Through The Liberator, which circulated widely both in England and the United…

Sally Mann: …of black-and-white portraits, entitled “Immediate Family,” was unveiled in the spring of 1992 at Houk Friedman, a gallery in New York City. Those photographs created a stir because they focused on her three children, who often appeared nude and in postures, situations, and settings that some viewers found disturbing.…

anaphylaxis, in immunology, a severe, immediate, potentially fatal systemic allergic reaction to contact with a foreign substance, or antigen, to which an individual has become sensitized. Food allergies are the most common triggers of anaphylaxis, followed by drugs and insect bites and stings.

poison: Immediate versus delayed toxic responses: …exposure, the response is considered immediate. There is no universal standard of minimum time for delayed toxic responses, but generally a response that takes more than a few days to develop is considered delayed. The time it takes for a systemic toxicant to act depends on many factors, such as…

William Lloyd Garrison: “Immediatism,” however variously it was interpreted by American reformers, condemned slavery as a national sin, called for emancipation at the earliest possible moment, and proposed schemes for incorporating the freedmen into American society. Through The Liberator, which circulated widely both in England and the United…

air warfare: Through World War I: …what became known as the Immelmann turn, in which an attacking fighter dove past the enemy craft, pulled sharply up into a vertical climb until it was above the target again, then turned hard to the side and down so that it could dive a second time. Fighters operated at…

air warfare: Through World War I: The German ace Max Immelmann, in exploiting the superior abilities of his Fokker Eindeker to climb and dive quickly, helped expand aerial combat from the horizontal into the vertical dimension. Immelmann developed what became known as the Immelmann turn, in which an attacking fighter dove past the enemy…

extraterrestrial life: Searching for technical civilizations: …words of Loren Eiseley (from The Immense Journey [1957]),

Theodor Woldsen Storm: …most important early works is Immensee (1850; Eng. trans., 1863), a moving story of the vanished happiness of childhood, which, like so many of his works, is coloured by a haunting nostalgia. As his writing matured his novellas displayed subtler psychological insight, greater realism, and a wider scope of themes—including…

Karl Leberecht Immermann was a dramatist and novelist whose works included two forerunners in German literary history: Die Epigonen as a novel of the contemporary social scene and Der Oberhof as a realistic story of village life. The son of a civil servant, Immermann interrupted his legal studies

immersed tube, technique of underwater tunneling used principally for underwater crossings. The method was pioneered by the American engineer W.J. Wilgus in the Detroit River in 1903 for the Michigan Central Railroad. Wilgus dredged a trench in the riverbed, floated segments of steel tube into

Baptist: Contents: …were led to insist upon immersion as the apostolic form of the rite.

immersion foot, a painful disorder of the foot involving damage to the skin, nerves, and muscle that is caused by prolonged exposure to cold dampness or by prolonged immersion in cold water. See

french fries: …then typically fried in a deep fryer. The oil causes french fries to be high in fat, which is linked to cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Flavouring with salt also poses risks to the heart. Amid growing health concerns, many fast-food chains, including McDonald’s, stopped using oil that contains trans fat

microscope: Optics: An immersion objective requires a liquid, usually a transparent oil of the same R.I. as glass, to occupy the space between the object and the front element of the objective.

Robert E. Park: In The Immigrant Press and Its Control (1922), Park argued that foreign-language newspapers would, in the long run, promote assimilation of immigrants. Three volumes of his Collected Papers, edited by Everett C. Hughes and others, were published between 1950 and 1955. The second volume deals with…

“Path to citizenship” is a political phrase that usually refers to allowing undocumented immigrants become American citizens via a special process. This process may include special requirements (such as fees, background checks, or additional waiting times) beyond those already in place for the

immigration, process through which individuals become permanent residents or citizens of another country. Historically, the process of immigration has been of great social, economic, and cultural benefit to states. The immigration experience is long and varied and has in many cases resulted in the

United States: The Great Society: The Immigration Act of 1965 abolished the discriminatory national-origins quota system. The minimum wage was raised and its coverage extended in 1966. In 1967, social security pensions were raised and coverage expanded. The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Area Redevelopment Act of 1966 provided aid to cities…

eugenics: Eugenics organizations and legislation: …ultimately led to a new immigration law in 1924 that severely restricted the annual immigration of individuals from countries previously claimed to have contributed excessively to the dilution of American “good stock.”

Chinese Exclusion Act, U.S. federal law that was the first and only major federal legislation to explicitly suspend immigration for a specific nationality. The basic exclusion law prohibited Chinese labourers—defined as “both skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining”—from

Amy Coney Barrett: …term “public charge” in the Immigration and Nationality Act (1952), which would greatly reduce the number of immigrants granted admission to or legal permanent residency in the United States, was not unreasonable. Scholarly analyses of her time on the Seventh Circuit found her to be among the most conservative judges…

cybercrime: Counterfeiting and forgery: …had been missed by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). Finally, a 2002 report by the GAO reported that more than 90 percent of certain types of benefit claims were fraudulent and further stated that immigration fraud was “out of control.” Partially in response to these revelations, the INS was…

Channel Tunnel: In June–July 2015 the problem of migrants—many of them from eastern Africa—sneaking aboard vehicles on trains in an attempt to immigrate to the United Kingdom reached crisis proportions. During that period at least nine individuals were killed while trying to make their way to England via the tunnel. The…

Australia: The Chinese: …newly formed government was the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. This legislation, known as the “White Australia” policy, was specifically designed to end Asian migration to the country in order to maintain a “white” population. It severely limited the size of Chinese communities in Australia for more than 50 years,…

Immingham, dock system 6 miles (10 km) north of Grimsby, unitary authority of North East Lincolnshire, Eng. It was built in 1912 on the southern shore of the Humber Estuary, where the deep water enabled vessels to enter and leave unaided at all levels of the tide. The docks have more than 9,000

mineral deposit: Immiscible melts: …of magmatic segregation involves liquid immiscibility. A cooling magma will sometimes precipitate droplets of a second magma that has an entirely different composition. Like oil and water, the two magmas will not mix (i.e., they are immiscible). The chemical principle governing precipitation of an immiscible liquid is the same as…

The Immoralist, novella by André Gide, published as L’Immoraliste in 1902, one of the tales Gide called récits. Inspired by Nietszchean philosophy, Gide undertook the work as an examination of the point at which concern for the self must be superseded by moral principles based on empathy for

Aharon Appelfeld: …Life), Bartfus ben ha-almavet (1988; The Immortal Bartfuss), Katerinah (1989; Katerina), Mesilat barzel (1991; “The Railway”), and Unto the Soul (1994). Beyond Despair: Three Lectures and a Conversation with Philip Roth was published in 1994.

Gary Oldman: Sid and Nancy, JFK, and Hannibal: …of Ludwig van Beethoven in Immortal Beloved (1994).

Adolf Anderssen: …games was dubbed the “Immortal Game” because chess players thought that its fame would last forever. Anderssen studied mathematics and philosophy and taught mathematics and German at the Friedrichs Gymnasium.

Rutland Boughton: …was the tuneful Romantic opera The Immortal Hour (1913), which ran for 216 performances in London. His other operas include The Queen of Cornwall (1924), The Lily Maid (1934), and Galahad (1944). With Reginald Buckley, his partner in the Glastonbury scheme, he published a book, The Music Drama of the…

Iron Fist: …in yet another new comic, The Immortal Iron Fist (2006–09). The series, created by writers Ed Brubaker and Matt Fraction and featuring the distinctively dynamic art of David Aja, revealed that K’un-L’un was just one of the “capital cities of Heaven” and that each was championed by a martial artist…

immortal jellyfish, (Turritopsis dohrnii), species of tiny, translucent, jellyfish-like invertebrate animals of the phylum Cnidaria, which is renowned for its ability to evade death by cycling repeatedly between its polyp and medusa forms. The immortal jellyfish is not a true jellyfish, however, as

Oprah Winfrey: …in the HBO TV movie The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (2017), portraying the daughter of a woman whose cancerous cells were, unbeknownst to her and her family, used in research that led to numerous scientific advances. Winfrey then appeared as Mrs. Which in the 2018 film adaptation of Madeleine…

Anna Pavlova: …included in a compilation called The Immortal Swan, together with some extracts from her solos filmed one afternoon in Hollywood, in 1924, by the actor Douglas Fairbanks, Sr.

Irving Stone: …of 19 defeated presidential candidates; Immortal Wife (1944), the story of Jesse Benton Frémont, wife of the explorer John Frémont; President’s Lady (1951), based on the life of Rachel Jackson, wife of the seventh U.S. president; Love Is Eternal (1954), a fictionalized account of the marriage of Mary Todd and…

immortality, in philosophy and religion, the indefinite continuation of the mental, spiritual, or physical existence of individual human beings. In many philosophical and religious traditions, immortality is specifically conceived as the continued existence of an immaterial soul or mind beyond the

Henry Cavill: The Tudors and films of the early 2010s: …playing Greek hero Theseus in Immortals (2011) and the son of a CIA agent (played by Bruce Willis) in The Cold Light of Day (2012).

Kim Hong-do: …his portrayal of the “Sennin” (“Immortals”), whom he depicts in an unusual heroic style, showing them full-figured and robust.

everlasting: …especially the true everlastings, or immortelles, species of the genus Helichrysum. Helichrysum—native to North Africa, Crete, and the parts of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean—is cultivated in many parts of Europe. The immortelles have one or more whorls of dry, scalelike or membranous bracts (leaves borne below flowers) that preserve…

Alain Robbe-Grillet: …pictures he directed, among them L’Immortelle (1963; “The Immortal”), Trans-Europ-Express (1966), and L’Homme qui ment (1968; The Man Who Lies). His best-known work in the medium, however, is the screenplay for Alain Resnais’s film L’Année dernière à Marienbad (1961; Last Year at Marienbad). Ultimately, Robbe-Grillet’s work raises questions

real and personal property, a basic division of property in English common law, roughly corresponding to the division between immovables and movables in civil law. At common law most interests in land and fixtures (such as permanent buildings) were classified as real-property interests. Leasehold

blood group: The importance of antigens and antibodies: Immune antibodies are evoked by exposure to the corresponding red cell antigen. Immunization (i.e., the production of antibodies in response to antigen) against blood group antigens in humans can occur as a result of pregnancy, blood transfusion, or deliberate immunization. The combination of pregnancy and…

immunodeficiency, defect in immunity that impairs the body’s ability to resist infection. The immune system may fail to function for many reasons. Primary immunodeficiency disorders—many of which are inherited, being caused by a genetic defect—are usually evident early in life. Secondary

blood transfusion: Transfusion procedures and blood storage: Exchange

immune system: Interferons: beta interferon by fibroblasts, and gamma interferon by natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (killer T cells). All interferons inhibit viral replication by interfering with the transcription of viral nucleic acid. Interferons exert additional inhibitory effects by regulating the extent to which lymphocytes and other cells express certain important…