naval architecture: Inclining experiment: Fortunately, the naval architect is able to make a full-scale check of the predicted or calculated metacentric stability before the completed ship goes to sea. By shifting liquids or solid masses whose weights and offset positions are known accurately, the centre of gravity…

dip circle, instrument for measuring the inclination, or dip, of the Earth’s magnetic field. It consists essentially of a magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of a graduated circle. The assembly is mounted such that the needle swings vertically rather than horizontally, as does a compass needle.

enclosure, the division or consolidation of communal fields, meadows, pastures, and other arable lands in western Europe into the carefully delineated and individually owned and managed farm plots of modern times. Before enclosure, much farmland existed in the form of numerous, dispersed strips

formal logic: Set theory: The relation of class inclusion, however (to be carefully distinguished from class membership), is transitive. A class x is said to be included in a class y (written x ⊆ y) if and only if every member of x is also a member of y. (This is not…

Allende meteorite: …of large, irregularly shaped white inclusions and rounded chondrules in a dark matrix. The inclusions are composed of minerals believed to have condensed at high temperatures from a gas having the composition of the Sun, and their time of formation is older than that of any other known solar system…

combinatorics: The principle of inclusion and exclusion: derangements: This is the principle of inclusion and exclusion expressed by Sylvester.

bacteria: Cytoplasmic structures: …are numerous inclusion bodies, or granules, in the bacterial cytoplasm. These bodies are never enclosed by a membrane and serve as storage vessels. Glycogen, which is a polymer of glucose, is stored as a reserve of carbohydrate and energy. Volutin, or metachromatic granules, contains polymerized phosphate and represents a storage…

memory disorder: Persistent effects after encephalitis: …of brain inflammation called acute inclusion body encephalitis. The individual’s behavior closely resembles that of Korsakoff syndrome except that the person’s insight into the memory disorder is usually good and confabulation is infrequent or absent. Indeed, the memory disorder is sometimes so limited and specific as to raise the possibility…

conjunctivitis: Inclusion conjunctivitis, so called because of the small bodies that are observed within (“included in”) the infected cells, is also caused by C. trachomatis. This disease occurs in newborns, who become infected when passing through the birth canal, and in sexually active adults, who often…

history of logic: The Megarians and the Stoics: They also knew “inclusive” disjunction (defined as true when at least one disjunct is true), but this was not widely used. More important, the Stoics seem to have been the first to show how some of these truth-functional words may be defined in terms of others.

inclusive fitness, theory in evolutionary biology in which an organism’s genetic success is believed to be derived from cooperation and altruistic behaviour. Inclusive fitness theory suggests that altruism among organisms who share a given percentage of genes enables those genes to be passed on to

monotheism: Inclusive monotheism: Inclusive monotheism accepts the existence of a great number of gods but holds that all gods are essentially one and the same, so that it makes little or no difference under which name or according to which rite a god or goddess is…

monotheism: Inclusive monotheism: Inclusive monotheism accepts the existence of a great number of gods but holds that all gods are essentially one and the same, so that it makes little or no difference under which name or according to which rite a god or goddess is invoked. Such…

Delaware River: The Interstate Commission on the Delaware River Basin (Incodel) was formed in 1936 by the four states in the watershed of the river (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware) to control and prevent water pollution, plan the conservation of water supply for the use of…

comic strip: The autobiographical graphic novel: …is African American Mat Johnson’s Incognegro (2008), with art by Warren Pleece. Set in the 1930s, this graphic novel shows a black journalist who passes as white, using his light skin as a mask in order to solve a crime.

Ludacris: …South, which repackaged Incognegro as Back for the First Time (2000). That major label debut ultimately reached number four in the Billboard 200.

William Congreve: Early life: …drafted when he was 17, Incognita: or, Love and Duty reconcil’d. He quickly became known among men of letters, had some verses printed in a miscellany of the same year, and became a protégé of John Dryden. In that year Dryden published his translation of the satires of Juvenal and…

Averroës: …of Religion (Kashf al-Manāhij), and The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahāfut al-Tahāfut), all in defense of the philosophical study of religion against the theologians (1179–80).

optics: The mutual coherence function: …in the analysis of normally incoherent phenomena, such as image formation. It is notable that image formation in coherent light is not linear in intensity but is linear in the complex amplitude of the field, and in partially coherent light the process is linear in the mutual coherence.

plasma: Determination of plasma variables: …of the Earth using the incoherent scatter radar method. The method works by bouncing radio waves from small irregularities in the electron gas that occur owing to random thermal motions of the particles. The returning signal is shifted slightly from the transmitted one—because of the Doppler-shift effect—and the velocity of…

termite: Nest types: …obligate relationships are Ahamitermes and Incolitermes species, which live only in the mound nests of certain Coptotermes species. In these, the galleries of guests and hosts are completely separate. Inquilinous species feed on the inner carton material of the host nests. Incolitermes, however, depend on the host species not only…

Komati River, river rising near Breyten in Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Running generally eastward, it descends from a plateau, cutting a valley 3,000 feet (900 metres) deep in northwestern Swaziland before reaching the Lebombo Mountains, at which point it is joined by the Krokodil River and

distribution of wealth and income: Income is a net total of the flow of payments received in a given time period. Some countries collect statistics on wealth from legally required evaluations of the estates of deceased persons, which may or may not be indicative of what is possessed by the…

income and employment theory, a body of economic analysis concerned with the relative levels of output, employment, and prices in an economy. By defining the interrelation of these macroeconomic factors, governments try to create policies that contribute to economic stability. Modern interest in

security: Bonds: …the hybrid types is the income bond, which has a fixed maturity but on which interest is paid only if it is earned. These bonds developed in the United States out of railroad reorganizations, when investors holding defaulted bonds were willing to accept an income obligation in exchange for their…

Japan: Economic transformation: …significant boost by Ikeda Hayato’s Income Doubling Plan of 1960. This plan reaffirmed the government’s responsibility for social welfare, vocational training, and education, while also redefining growth to include consumers as well as producers. The second was the new industrial policy that emerged out of the Ministry of Trade and…

income tax: Rationale for taxation: …established standard of living (the income effect). To the extent that the tax reduces the reward for an extra hour’s work, it may make the taxpayer decide to work less and to indulge in more leisure (the substitution effect); presumably, the larger the income and the more steeply progressive the…

income inequality, in economics, significant disparity in the distribution of income between individuals, groups, populations, social classes, or countries. Income inequality is a major dimension of social stratification and social class. It affects and is affected by many other forms of

George Bernard Shaw on socialism: …into public property, and the division of the resultant public income equally and indiscriminately among the entire population. Thus it reverses the policy of Capitalism, which means establishing private or “real” property to the utmost physically possible extent, and then leaving distribution of income to take care of itself. The…

income statement, In accounting, the activity-oriented financial statement issued by businesses. Covering a specified time, such as three months or one year, the income statement is a summary of revenues and expenses. It also lists gains and losses from other transactions, such as the sale of

United Kingdom: Cash benefits: …benefit of last resort is income support (formerly called the supplementary benefit); it is payable to individuals whose entitlement to insurance benefits has been exhausted or has left them with a very low income and to those who never had any entitlement to an insurance benefit. Other means-tested benefits assist…

income tax, levy imposed on individuals (or family units) and corporations. Individual income tax is computed on the basis of income received. It is usually classified as a direct tax because the burden is presumably on the individuals who pay it. Corporate income tax is imposed on net profits,

Sixteenth Amendment, amendment (1913) to the Constitution of the United States permitting a federal income tax. Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution empowers Congress to “lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare

distribution of wealth and income, the way in which the wealth and income of a nation are divided among its population, or the way in which the wealth and income of the world are divided among nations. Such patterns of distribution are discerned and studied by various statistical means, all of

utility and value: Changes in prices and incomes: ) may be called the income–consumption curve; it shows how the consumer’s purchases vary with his income. Normally the curve will have a positive slope, as EE′ does in Figure 5A, meaning that as a person grows wealthier he will buy more of each commodity. But the slope can be…

incomes policy, collective governmental effort to control the incomes of labour and capital, usually by limiting increases in wages and prices. The term often refers to policies directed at the control of inflation, but it may also indicate efforts to alter the distribution of income among workers,

atmosphere: Radiation: …traditionally divided into two types: insolation from the Sun and emittance from the surface and the atmosphere. Insolation is frequently referred to as shortwave radiation; it falls primarily within the ultraviolet and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and consists predominantly of wavelengths of 0.39 to 0.76 micrometres (0.00002 to…

Incommensurables: The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios…

Incommensurables: The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios…

The geometers immediately following Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 bc) shared the unsound intuition that any two lengths are “commensurable” (that is, measurable) by integer multiples of some common unit. To put it another way, they believed that the whole (or counting) numbers, and their ratios

Mordecai Richler: …his screenplay in 1974; and The Incomparable Atuk (1963), which contains amusing descriptions of the powerful men who control the communications industries. Cocksure (1968) is concerned with an American attempt to take over a British publishing house. St. Urbain’s Horseman (1971; television miniseries 2007) concerns a Canadian director’s trial for…

Moon: Main groupings: …minerals and are thus called incompatible elements. They tend to remain uncombined in a melt—of either mare or highland composition—and to become concentrated in the last portions to solidify upon cooling. Lunar scientists gave these lavas the name KREEP, an acronym for potassium (chemical symbol K), rare-earth elements, and phosphorus…

heterospecific mating, mating in which the man and woman have incompatible blood types, such that the woman may develop antibodies to her partner’s blood type. This mating causes difficulties in childbirth, since there is a chance that the child conceived in a heterospecific mating will have its

Pete Seeger: Songwriting and activism: ” His The Incompleat Folksinger (1972) is a collection of his writings on the history of folk songs, civil rights, and performers in his lifetime.

blood group: Identification of blood groups: …in saline solution is called incomplete. Such antibodies block the antigenic sites of the red cells so that subsequent addition of complete antibody of the same antigenic specificity does not result in agglutination. Incomplete antibodies will agglutinate red cells carrying the appropriate antigen, however, when the cells are suspended in…

dominance: …said to be partially or incompletely dominant; i.e., it has a greater influence than t but does not completely mask the presence of t, which is said to be recessive. See also recessiveness.

flower: Form and types: …it is said to be incomplete. Stamens and pistils are not present together in all flowers. When both are present the flower is said to be perfect, or bisexual, regardless of a lack of any other part that renders it incomplete (see photograph). A flower that lacks stamens is pistillate,…

fracture: An incomplete, or greenstick, fracture occurs when the bone cracks and bends but does not completely break; when the bone does break into separate pieces, the condition is called a complete fracture. An impacted fracture occurs when the broken ends of the bone are jammed together…

insect: Types of metamorphosis: …hemimetabolous, are said to undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The higher orders of insects, including Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, and bees), Diptera (true flies), and several others, are called holometabolous because larvae are totally unlike adults. These larvae undergo a series of molts with little change in…

chemical bonding: Incomplete-octet compounds: Less common than hypervalent compounds, but by no means rare, are species in which an atom does not achieve an octet of electrons. Such compounds are called incomplete-octet compounds. An example is the compound boron trifluoride, BF3, which is used as an industrial…

chemical bonding: Incomplete-octet compounds: Less common than hypervalent compounds, but by no means rare, are species in which an atom does not achieve an octet of electrons. Such compounds are called incomplete-octet compounds. An example is the compound boron trifluoride, BF3, which is used as an industrial…

incompleteness theorem, in foundations of mathematics, either of two theorems proved by the Austrian-born American logician Kurt Gödel. In 1931 Gödel published his first incompleteness theorem, “Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme” (“On Formally

incompleteness theorem: In 1931 Gödel published his first incompleteness theorem, “Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme” (“On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems”), which stands as a major turning point of 20th-century logic. This theorem established that it is impossible to use the axiomatic method…

incompleteness theorem: The second incompleteness theorem follows as an immediate consequence, or corollary, from Gödel’s paper. Although it was not stated explicitly in the paper, Gödel was aware of it, and other mathematicians, such as the Hungarian-born American mathematician John von Neumann, realized immediately that it followed as…

bulk modulus, numerical constant that describes the elastic properties of a solid or fluid when it is under pressure on all surfaces. The applied pressure reduces the volume of a material, which returns to its original volume when the pressure is removed. Sometimes referred to as the

Ben Elton: Published novels and other works: The book Inconceivable (1999) is a semi-autobiographical take on the journey of Elton and his wife—Australian saxophonist Sophie Gare—through the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF). He adapted the book into the romantic comedy film he directed, Maybe Baby (2000), starring Laurie and Joely Richardson. Other novels…

Joaquim José da Silva Xavier: …for the rebellion, called the Inconfidência Mineira, led by Tiradentes.

Ouro Prêto: …massive colonial penitentiary contains the Museum of the Inconfidência, dedicated to the history of gold mining and culture in Minas Gerais. The colonial theatre, restored in 1861–62, is the oldest in Brazil. The city has many Baroque churches. Religious architecture and sculpture attained great perfection in the city under the…

incongruent melting, liquefaction of a solid accompanied by decomposition or by reaction with the melt to produce another solid and a liquid that differs in composition from the original solid. For example, enstatite, a magnesium silicate (MgSiO3), melts incongruently at low pressures to form

whitefish: The inconnu, cony, or sheefish (Stenodus leucichthys), an oily-fleshed salmonid, is eaten in the far northwestern regions of North America.

predicate calculus: …These are, respectively, the tautologous, inconsistent, and contingent sentences of the predicate calculus. Certain tautologous sentence types may be selected as axioms or as the basis for rules for transforming the symbols of the various sentence types; and rather routine and mechanical procedures may then be laid down for deciding…

al-Ghazālī: …in the Tahāfut al-falāsifah (The Inconsistency—or Incoherence—of the Philosophers), in which he defended Islam against such philosophers as Avicenna who sought to demonstrate certain speculative views contrary to accepted Islamic teaching. (See Islamic philosophy for more on these philosophers.) In preparation for this major treatise, he published an objective…

insurance: Other provisions: Perhaps the best-known is the incontestable clause, which provides that if a policy has been in force for two years the insurer may not afterward refuse to pay the proceeds or cancel the contract for any reason except nonpayment of premiums. Thus, if the insured made a material misrepresentation when…

incontinence, inability to control the excretion of urine or feces. Starting and stopping urination relies on normal function in pelvic and abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and control nerves. Babies’ nervous systems are too immature for urinary control. Later incontinence may reflect disorders (e.g.,

defecation: Incontinence—the loss of control over the evacuative process—can develop with age; it may also result from surgical, obstetric, spinal, or other bodily injuries or with neurological impairment resulting from diabetes, stroke, or multiple sclerosis. Defecation may also be influenced by pain, fear, temperature elevation, and…

Bruno Maderna: …to electronic and avant-garde music, Incontri Musicali (“Musical Encounters”). Maderna later taught composition in Milan, at the Dartington Summer School of Music, Devon, Eng., and elsewhere.

An Inconvenient Truth, American documentary film, released in 2006, featuring the multimedia presentation of former U.S. vice president Al Gore that formed the basis for his traveling lecture tour on the emerging human challenge of global warming and climate change. From the stage of a small

Claudio Monteverdi: Three decades in Venice: …Ulysses to His Country and The Coronation of Poppea—and both are masterpieces. Although they still retain some elements of the Renaissance intermezzo and pastoral, they can be fairly described as the first modern operas. Their interest lies in revealing the development of human beings in realistic situations. There are main…

acculturation: Incorporation refers to the free borrowing and modification of cultural elements and occurs when people of different cultures maintain contact as well as political and social self-determination. It may involve syncretism, a process through which people create a new synthesis of phenomena that differs from…

property: …had considerable difficulty in making intangible things the object of property. Some Western legal systems still deny the possibility of property in intangibles. In all Western legal systems, however, the great increase of wealth in the form of intangibles (stocks, bonds, bank accounts) has meant that property or property-like treatment…

philosophy of mind: Consciousness: …is said to have “incorrigible” (or uncorrectable) access to his own mental states. For many people, the existence of these conscious states in their own case is more obvious and undeniable than anything else in the world. Indeed, the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) regarded his immediate…

gnosticism: Adversus haereses: …the Father’s first self-thought), Foreknowledge, Incorruptibility, Eternal Life, and so forth. Among those spiritual entities is a perfect human named Adamas—a divine prototype of the earthly Adam of Genesis. Adamas is united with a consort, Perfect Knowledge (gnosis). The teaching thus provides a mythic account of how plurality (of divine…

David Cross: Arrested Development and later acting credits: …starred in the TV show The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret (2009–16), which centers on an American who is hired to market an energy drink in England. In addition, Cross lent his voice to a number of projects, including such popular animated films as the King Fu Panda series,…

Klabund: …the Fool) and Borgia (1928; The Incredible Borgias). Li-tai-pe (1916) and Lao-tse (1921) are also among his works.

Zulfikar Ghose: The trilogy The Incredible Brazilian—comprising The Native (1972), The Beautiful Empire (1975), and A Different World (1978)—presents the picaresque adventures, often violent or sexually perverse, of a man who goes through several reincarnations. Ghose’s other novels include Crump’s Terms (1975),

Steve Carell: Despicable Me, Minions, and Foxcatcher: …from a rival performer in The Incredible Burt Wonderstone and played an overbearing father figure in the coming-of-age tale The Way Way Back. That year he also reprised the role of Brick Tamland in Anchorman 2: The Legend Continues.

Samuel Hopkins Adams: Harding, Incredible Era (1939), set forth the scandals of the Harding administration. Adams also wrote biographies of Daniel Webster (The Godlike Daniel, 1930) and Alexander Woollcott (1945). Several of his novels became movie scenarios, notably It Happened One Night (1934) and a musical, The Harvey Girls

Incredible Hulk, American comic strip character created for Marvel Comics by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby. The towering muscle-bound antihero debuted in the bimonthly series The Incredible Hulk in May 1962. The Hulk was a hybrid of two popular comic book genres—monsters and superheroes. In

Incredible Hulk: The Hulk in television and film: Another version, The Incredible Hulk, directed by Louis Letterier, appeared in 2008. The character was integrated into Marvel’s larger cinematic universe with Mark Ruffalo’s scene-stealing turn as the jade giant in The Avengers (2012). Ruffalo returned as the Hulk in Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Thor: Ragnarok

Incredible Hulk: The Hulk in television and film: …character was the live-action drama The Incredible Hulk (1978–82). On that show, the character was played by two men, bodybuilder Lou Ferrigno as the Hulk and actor Bill Bixby as Banner. Oscar-winning director Ang Lee created the character’s first feature film, Hulk, in 2003. Another version, The Incredible Hulk, directed…

Wolverine: …his first full appearance in The Incredible Hulk no. 181 (1974).

The Incredible Mr. Limpet, American comedic fantasy film, released in 1964, that featured Don Knotts in his first box-office hit as a leading man. This family movie combined live action with animation. Meek bookkeeper Henry Limpet (played by Knotts) has a passion for studying fish. When the United

The Incredible Shrinking Man, American science-fiction film, released in 1957, that features an inventive story, an intelligent script, and impressive special effects. After being exposed to a radioactive cloud, Scott Carey (played by Grant Williams) discovers that his body is shrinking. As he

The Incredible Shrinking Man: The film inspired The Incredible Shrinking Woman (1981), which starred Lily Tomlin.

Holly Hunter: …Incredibles (2004) and its sequel, Incredibles 2 (2018).

The Incredibles, computer-animated motion picture, released in 2004, about a family of superheroes. It was a great critical and commercial success for Pixar Animation Studios. The film was directed and written by Brad Bird, whose previous credits included the television show The Simpsons and the

G.K. Chesterton: …followed by The Wisdom… (1914), The Incredulity… (1926), The Secret… (1927), and The Scandal of Father Brown (1935).

Sebastián López de Arteaga: …the Crucifixion (1643), and the Incredulity of St. Thomas (1643). The latter two are excellent examples of the powerful tenebrism of his work. In the Crucifixion a starkly lit and attenuated Christ twists on the cross against a dark background. Similarly dramatic lighting in the Incredulity of St. Thomas highlights…

dendrochronology: …obtained by means of an increment borer, a simple metal tube of small diameter that can be driven into a tree to get a core extending from bark to centre. This core is split in the laboratory, the rings are counted and measured, and the sequence of rings is correlated…

government budget: Program budgeting and zero-base budgeting: …and then to decide on incremental expenditure for each program. Such an approach means, however, that the change is likely to increase, rather than decrease, expenditure and that little attention is paid to what the full existing program actually accomplishes.

Alejandro Aravena: …are known for building “incremental housing,” a form of basic affordable housing in economically vibrant urban locations and realized in part with government subsidies. Called “half a good house” by Aravena, that type of housing gave the most-disenfranchised citizens the opportunity to play a role in improving their economic…

incremental repetition, a device used in poetry of the oral tradition, especially English and Scottish ballads, in which a line is repeated in a changed context or with minor changes in the repeated part. The device is illustrated in the following stanzas from the ballad “Lord

incrementalism, theory of public policy making, according to which policies result from a process of interaction and mutual adaptation among a multiplicity of actors advocating different values, representing different interests, and possessing different information. Incrementalism was first

Western painting: Pagan Roman paintings: …were decorated in a so-called Incrustation, or First, style; that is, the imitation in painted stucco of veneers, or crustae (“slabs”), of coloured marbles. But in the second half of the 1st century bc, there suddenly appeared in Rome and in the Campanian cities (the most famous of which is…

incubation, the maintenance of uniform conditions of temperature and humidity to ensure the development of eggs or, under laboratory conditions, of certain experimental organisms, especially bacteria. The phrase incubation period designates the time from the commencement of incubation to hatching.

plant disease: Pathogenesis and saprogenesis: One of the important characteristics of pathogenic organisms, in terms…

oracle: …the most common methods was incubation, in which the inquirer slept in a holy precinct and received an answer in a dream.

incubator, an insulated enclosure in which temperature, humidity, and other environmental conditions can be regulated at levels optimal for growth, hatching, or reproduction. There are three principal kinds of incubators: poultry incubators, infant incubators, and bacteriological incubators.

megapode, (family Megapodiidae), any of 12 species of Australasian chickenlike birds (order Galliformes) that bury their eggs to hatch them. Most species rely on fermenting plant matter to produce heat for incubation, but some use solar heat and others the heat produced by volcanic action.

incubus, demon in male form that seeks to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women; the corresponding spirit in female form is called a succubus. In medieval Europe, union with an incubus was supposed by some to result in the birth of witches, demons, and deformed human offspring. The legendary