disposable income: By convention, indirect taxes, such as value-added and other sales taxes, payroll taxes, and employers’ contributions to social insurance, are not deducted from the computation of disposable income. Although these clearly reduce private spending power generally, it is difficult to attribute their incidence to specific persons and…

poison: Carcinogenesis: Indirect-acting genotoxic carcinogens do not bind to DNA until they have been biotransformed in the body to reactive chemicals. Among the indirect-acting carcinogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrosamines, and nitrosonornicotine are found in cigarette smoke. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are also formed in charcoal-broiled meat. Nitrosamines can…

metalogic: Ultrafilters, ultraproducts, and ultrapowers: Those elements of the set that lie in the same class cannot be distinguished by the property defining that class.

August Wilhelm von Schlegel: …he published the scholarly journal Indische Bibliothek, 3 vol. (1820–30), and set up a Sanskrit printing press, with which he printed editions of the Bhagavadgītā (1823) and Rāmāyana (1829). He founded Sanskrit studies in Germany.

Indonesia: The rise of nationalism: In 1912 the Indies Party (Indische Partij)—primarily a Eurasian party—was founded by E.F.E. Douwes Dekker; banned a year later, it was succeeded by another Eurasian party, calling itself Insulinde, a poetic name for the East Indies. In 1914 the Dutchman Hendricus Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association,…

Perhimpunan Indonesia, an Indonesian students’ organization in the Netherlands, formed in the early 1920s in Leiden, which provided a source of intellectual leadership for the Indonesian nationalist movement. This association originated in 1908 as the Indische Vereeniging (Indies Association),

Stanley Donen: Films of the 1960s and ’70s: In Indiscreet (1958) he used Cary Grant to good comedic effect as a diplomat-playboy who romances a famed actress played by Ingrid Bergman. Less successful were a pair of films that Donen directed starring Yul Brenner: Once More, with Feeling! (1960), another romantic comedy; and Surprise…

philosophy of mathematics: The Fregean argument for Platonism: According to the indispensability argument, well-established mathematical theorems must be true because they are inextricably woven into the empirical theories that have been developed and accepted in the natural sciences, and there are good reasons to think that these empirical theories are true. (This argument has roots in…

Amancio Ortega: …of the Spanish clothing merchandiser Inditex (Industria de Diseño Textil, SA), which included the Zara chain store.

indium (In), chemical element, rare metal of main Group 13 (IIIa, or boron group) of the periodic table. Indium has a brilliant silvery-white luster. It was discovered (1863) by German chemists Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymus Theodor Richter while they were examining zinc ore samples. The presence

nanotechnology: Bottom-up approach: Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) dots can be formed by growing thin layers of InGaAs on GaAs in such a manner that repulsive forces caused by compressive strain in the InGaAs layer results in the formation of isolated quantum dots. After the growth of multiple layer…

gallium: …GaN, gallium arsenide, GaAs, and indium gallium arsenide phosphide, InGaAsP—that have valuable semiconductor and optoelectronic properties. Some of these compounds are used in solid-state devices such as transistors and rectifiers, and some form the basis for light-emitting diodes and semiconductor lasers. GaN nanowires have been synthesized and used in electronic…

conductive ceramics: Thick-film and thin-film resistors and electrodes: …in the electronics industry as indium tin oxide (ITO)—are outstanding electronic conductors, and they have the added virtue of being optically transparent. Conductivity and transparency arise from the combination of a large band gap and the incorporation of sufficient electron donors. There is thus an optimal electron concentration to maximize…

indium: …a mixture of two isotopes: indium-113 (4.28 percent) and indium-115 (95.72 percent).

indium: 28 percent) and indium-115 (95.72 percent).

Indian philosophy: Contributions of Dignaga and Dharmakirti: …the former is the pure particular (svalakshana), and the object of the latter (he regarded judgments as containing elements of inference) is the universal (samanyalakshana). In their metaphysical positions, Dignaga and Dharmakirti represent a moderate form of idealism.

philosophy of logic: Nature and varieties of logic: …here called a bound (individual) variable. Its values are supposed to be members of some fixed class of entities, called individuals, a class that is variously known as the universe of discourse, the universe presupposed in an interpretation, or the domain of individuals. Its members are said to be…

formal logic: Special systems of LPC: One or more individual constants (say, a, b, …): these constants are interpreted as names of specific individuals; formally they are distinguished from individual variables by the fact that they cannot occur within quantifiers; e.g., (∀x) is a quantifier but (∀a) is not. b.One or more predicate constants…

punishment: Individual deterrence: Individual deterrence is directed at the person being punished: it aims to teach him not to repeat the behaviour. It is also the rationale of much informal punishment, such as parental punishment of children. Theoretically, the effectiveness of individual deterrence can be measured…

learning theory: Contemporary trends in learning theory: …tended to obscure differences among individuals. For example, so complete was Hull’s faith in universal “laws” of animal behaviour, that he based his hypothesis about the optimal interval for classical conditioning in humans, other mammals, and birds on the pattern of nerve conduction in the optic nerve of the horseshoe…

mental disorder: Individual dynamic psychotherapy: Although the influence of psychoanalysis, particularly on American psychiatry, was profound, it began to wane in the 1970s. Since then, those seeking treatment have tended to choose short-term individual dynamic therapy over psychoanalysis. This form of therapy is usually more accessible and…

biblical literature: Psalms: In the Individual Lament an individual worshipper cries out to Yahweh in time of need. The structure of these psalms includes: an invocation of Yahweh, the complaint, the request for help, an expression of certainty that Yahweh will hear and answer the prayer, and in many cases…

liberty, a state of freedom, especially as opposed to political subjection, imprisonment, or slavery. Its two most generally recognized divisions are political and civil liberty. Civil liberty is the absence of arbitrary restraint and the assurance of a body of rights, such as those found in bills

Barack Obama: Budget battles: …strike down the act’s “individual mandate” provision, which would financially penalize Americans for not obtaining health insurance, a requirement many Republican politicians argued was unconstitutional.

insurance: Rate making: …method and the individual, or merit-rating, method. Sometimes a combination of the two methods is used.

health maintenance organization: …group practice model and the medical care foundation (MCF), also called individual practice association. The prepaid group practice type of health care plan was pioneered by the Ross-Loos Medical Group in California, U.S., in 1929. In this model, physicians are organized into a group practice, and there is one insuring…

individual psychology, body of theories of the Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler, who held that the main motives of human thought and behaviour are individual man’s striving for superiority and power, partly in compensation for his feeling of inferiority. Every individual, in this view, is unique,

industrial glass: Containers: … are usually formed by the Individual Section (IS) machine. In this machine a stream of molten glass is pushed out of an orifice at the end of the forehearth by a rotating bowl and is subsequently cut to gobs of glass. The gobs travel down chutes to a mold in…

philosophy of biology: Levels of selection: …natural selection operates at the level of the individual. Adaptive features are acquired by and passed on to individual organisms, not groups or species, and they benefit individual organisms directly and groups or species only incidentally. One type of case, however, did cause him worry: in nests of social insects,…

biblical literature: Psalms: …final major type is the Individual Song of Thanksgiving, which presumably had its setting in the thanksgiving sacrifice offered after a saving experience. These psalms begin and conclude with an exclamation of praise to Yahweh. The body of the psalm contains two elements: the story of the one who has…

philosophy of logic: Nature and varieties of logic: …that”) and “(∀x)” (“For each individual, call it x, it is true that”). The dummy letter x is here called a bound (individual) variable. Its values are supposed to be members of some fixed class of entities, called individuals, a class that is variously known as the universe of discourse,…

collective violence: Defining collective violence: …violence into two major types: individual violence and collective violence. Individual (or personal) violence is injurious force directed by one person against others. It includes making physical attacks and destroying another’s property. In contrast, collective violence consists of a number of persons directing injurious force against others. Acts of collective…

automation: Impact on the individual: Nearly all industrial installations of automation, and in particular robotics, involve a replacement of human labour by an automated system. Therefore, one of the direct effects of automation in factory operations is the dislocation of human labour from the workplace. The long-term effects…

social identity theory: Strategies for status improvement: According to the individual-mobility belief system, individuals are free agents who are capable of moving from one group to another. The defining feature of the system is the notion that group boundaries are permeable, such that individuals are not bound or restricted by their group memberships in pursuing…

individualism, political and social philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual. Although the concept of an individual may seem straightforward, there are many ways of understanding it, both in theory and in practice. The term individualism itself, and its equivalents in other

ballad: Theories: Their opponents were the individualists, who included the British men of letters W.J. Courthope (1842–1917) and Andrew Lang (1844–1912) and the American linguist Louise Pound (1872–1958). They held that each ballad was the work of an individual composer, who was not necessarily a folk singer, tradition serving simply as…

Chinese painting: Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12): …frequently referred to as “Individualists.” Collectively, these artists represent a triumphant, if short-lived, moment in the history of literati painting, triggered in good part by the emotionally cathartic conquest of China by the Manchus. They shared a rejection of Manchu political authority and the choice of an eremitic, often…

Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley: …where feasible—as detailed in an individualized education program (IEP) developed for each child by school officials in consultation with parents or guardians. The court’s decision in Rowley thus defined the term free appropriate public education.

vegetable processing: Freezing: …a technology known as the individually quick-frozen (IQF) method. IQF is a method that does not allow large ice crystals to form in vegetable cells. Also, since each piece is individually frozen, particles do not cohere, and the final product is not frozen into a solid block. Various freezing techniques…

Arlington Central School District Board of Education v. Murphy: …school districts under the 1990 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are not entitled to reimbursement for costs associated with hiring expert witnesses and consultants.

Kantianism: Non-German Kantianism: Strawson, titled Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics (1959).

individuation, Determination that an individual identified in one way is numerically identical with or distinct from an individual identified in another way (e.g., Venus, known as “the morning star” in the morning and “the evening star” in the evening). Since the concept of an individual seems to

Carl Jung: Character of his psychotherapy: He called this process individuation.

Leo Baeck: Role as Jewish leader: His final writings, notably Individuum Ineffabile (1948) and This People Israel, continued to express hope in man and the human situation as the area of the revelation. In his life, Baeck summarized the greatness and perhaps also some of the flaws of German Jewry, which placed all of its…

Bonaventura Cavalieri: …Cavalieri had completely developed his method of indivisibles, a means of determining the size of geometric figures similar to the methods of integral calculus. He delayed publishing his results for six years out of deference to Galileo, who planned a similar work. Cavalieri’s work appeared in 1635 and was entitled…

Greenland Ice Sheet, the single ice sheet or glacier covering about 80 percent of the island of Greenland and the largest ice mass in the Northern Hemisphere, globally second in size to only the ice mass that covers Antarctica. It extends 1,380 miles (2,220 km) north-south, has a maximum width of

African literature: Zulu: Dhlomo’s novel Indlela yababi (1946; “The Bad Path”) investigates the polarity between urbanized life and traditional practices and concludes that the former is unstable. A similar theme is developed in a novel by Jordan Kush Ngubane, Uvalo lwezinhlonzi (1956; “Fear of Authority”). Gumbi’s novel Wayesezofika ekhaya (1966;…

African architecture: Nomads and pastoralists: …thatched; the Zulu domes, or indlu, have finely detailed entrances. Some Nguni types have layers of mats beneath for insulation, the covering thatch being brought to a decorative finial and the whole held down with a grass rope net to withstand strong winds.

Aryan, name originally given to a people who were said to speak an archaic Indo-European language and who were thought to have settled in prehistoric times in ancient Iran and the northern Indian subcontinent. The theory of an “Aryan race” appeared in the mid-19th century and remained prevalent

Indo-Aryan languages, subgroup of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. In the early 21st century, Indo-Aryan languages were spoken by more than 800 million people, primarily in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Linguists generally recognize three major

Indo-Aryan literature, body of writings in the Indo-Aryan family of languages. It is difficult to pinpoint the time when the Indo-Aryan dialects first became identifiable as languages. About the 10th century ce, Sanskrit was still the language of high culture and serious literature, as well as the

Cenozoic Era: Geologic processes: …formed some time after the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate. These lofty mountains marked the culmination of the great uplift that occurred during the late Cenozoic when the Indian Plate drove many hundreds of kilometres into the underbelly of Asia. They are the product of the low-angle underthrusting…

Brahman: …in the breed known as Indo-Brazil.

tiger: The Indo-Chinese (P. tigris corbetti), and Sumatran (P. tigris sumatrae) tigers are bright reddish tan, beautifully marked with dark, almost black, vertical stripes. The underparts, the inner sides of the limbs, the cheeks, and a large spot over each eye are whitish. The rare Siberian tiger…

Indo-Eṣfahān carpet, type of floor covering ranging from small to extremely large, handmade in India, primarily in the 17th century, as free imitations of Herāt designs. They appear to have been exported in quantity to Europe, especially to Portugal and the Low Countries, by the various East India

Himalayas: People of the Himalayas: …families in the Indian subcontinent—Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman, Austroasiatic, and Dravidian—the first two are well represented in the Himalayas. In ancient times, peoples speaking languages from both families mixed in varying proportions in different areas. Their distribution is the result of a long history of penetrations by Central Asian and Iranian…

Indo-European languages, family of languages spoken in most of Europe and areas of European settlement and in much of Southwest and South Asia. The term Indo-Hittite is used by scholars who believe that Hittite and the other Anatolian languages are not just one branch of Indo-European but rather a

Indo-Gangetic Plain, extensive north-central section of the Indian subcontinent, stretching westward from (and including) the combined delta of the Brahmaputra and Ganges (Ganga) rivers to the Indus River valley. The region contains the subcontinent’s richest and most densely populated areas. The

Bactria: …India, where they established the Indo-Greek branch of the kingdom. At the height of their power they ruled almost all of what is now Afghanistan, parts of Central Asia, and a large area in what is now Pakistan. Consequently, Hellenistic influence on the culture of Central Asia and northwestern India…

Indo-Hittite languages, hypothetical family of languages composed of the Indo-European and Anatolian languages. The term Indo-Hittite was proposed by scholars who believed that Hittite and the other closely related Anatolian languages represent a language branch at the same level as all the other

Indo-Iranian languages, group of languages constituting the easternmost major branch of the Indo-European family of languages; only the Tocharian languages are found farther east. Scholarly consensus holds that the Indo-Iranian languages include the Iranian and Indo-Aryan (Indic) language groups.

Indo-Eṣfahān carpet, type of floor covering ranging from small to extremely large, handmade in India, primarily in the 17th century, as free imitations of Herāt designs. They appear to have been exported in quantity to Europe, especially to Portugal and the Low Countries, by the various East India

Indo-Pacific, maritime region spanning the Indian and Pacific oceans that has become a significant focal point of geopolitical strategy and tension throughout the 21st century. The term has been widely adopted in policy discourse by the United States and its allies, including Australia, Japan,

dolphin: Conservation status: …or near threatened include the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis), the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), and the Australian snubfin dolphin (O. heinsohni). The most vulnerable dolphins include the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) and the Indus river dolphin (

20th-century international relations: China, India, and Pakistan: Pakistani troops crossed the cease-fire line in Kashmir in August 1965, and India responded by invading Pakistan proper. Both superpowers backed U Thant’s personal quest for a cease-fire, and the Indians withdrew. The U.S.S.R. was able to regain influence with New Delhi, especially after the…

Yuezhi, ancient people who ruled in Bactria and India from about 128 bce to about 450 ce. The Yuezhi are first mentioned in Chinese sources at the beginning of the 2nd century bce as nomads living in the western part of Gansu province, northwestern China. When Lao Shang (reigned c. 174–161 bce),

Sikkim: History: In 1950 the Indo-Sikkimese Treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India assuming responsibility for the external relations, defense, and strategic communications of Sikkim. The terms of the treaty also included increased popular participation in government, and five general elections based on adult suffrage were held between 1952…

Mughal dynasty, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughal dynasty was notable for its

biogeographic region: Indoafrican subkingdom: In the Indoafrican subkingdom (Figure 1), curiously little distinction is to be made between the flora of Africa (south of the Sahara) and the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar (Burma), and southern China. These areas are narrowly connected by a corridor running through the Arabian…

Indochina, the three countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia formerly associated with France, first within its empire and later within the French Union. The term Indochina refers to the intermingling of Indian and Chinese influences in the culture of the region. After gradually establishing

Indochina wars, 20th-century conflicts in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, with the principal involvement of France (1946–54) and later the United States (beginning in the 1950s). The wars are often called the French Indochina War and the Vietnam War (q.v.), or the First and Second Indochina wars. The

Catherine Deneuve: …films of the 1990s included Indochine (1992), for which she received an Academy Award nomination for best actress, and O convento (1995; The Convent), which was directed by acclaimed Portuguese filmmaker Manoel de Oliveira. Deneuve enjoyed the film Breaking the Waves (1996) so much that she asked its director, Lars…

Indochina, the three countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia formerly associated with France, first within its empire and later within the French Union. The term Indochina refers to the intermingling of Indian and Chinese influences in the culture of the region. After gradually establishing

Truong Chinh: …career within the recently formed Indochinese Communist Party (PCI). While editing a Communist Party newspaper in Hanoi, he was arrested by the French in 1932 and spent the next four years in prison. Paroled in 1936, he was a well-qualified candidate for command in the PCI, most of whose earlier…

spitting cobra: Species, range, and conservation status: …with yellow markings least concern Indochinese spitting cobra Naja siamensis Southeast Asia medium-sized and relatively slender gray to black cobra with prominent white spots or stripes; it spits a mist of venom rather than a stream vulnerable Javan spitting cobra Naja sputatrix Java and nearby islands of Indonesia uniform yellowish-brown…

Vietnam: The conquest of Vietnam by France: …added it to the so-called Indochinese Union, which the French created in 1887. The union consisted of the colony of Cochinchina and the four protectorates of Annam, Tonkin, Cambodia, and Laos.

philosophy of education: Indoctrination: A much-debated question is whether and how education differs from indoctrination. Many theorists have assumed that the two are distinct and that indoctrination is undesirable, but others have argued that there is no difference in principle and that indoctrination is not intrinsically bad. Theories…

Asian brown cloud: …1990s as part of the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX), in which coordinated air pollution measurements were taken from satellites, aircraft, ships, surface stations, and balloons. The INDOEX observations surprised researchers by revealing a large aerosol formation over most of South Asia and the northern Indian Ocean. Because of the effects…

Indo-European languages, family of languages spoken in most of Europe and areas of European settlement and in much of Southwest and South Asia. The term Indo-Hittite is used by scholars who believe that Hittite and the other Anatolian languages are not just one branch of Indo-European but rather a

Indo-European languages, family of languages spoken in most of Europe and areas of European settlement and in much of Southwest and South Asia. The term Indo-Hittite is used by scholars who believe that Hittite and the other Anatolian languages are not just one branch of Indo-European but rather a

Wilhelm Streitberg: …Brugmann, founded (1891) and edited Indogermanische Forschungen (“Indo-European Researches”), an influential journal in the field of Indo-European linguistic studies.

indole, a heterocyclic organic compound occurring in some flower oils, such as jasmine and orange blossom, in coal tar, and in fecal matter. It is used in perfumery and in making tryptophan, an essential amino acid, and indoleacetic acid (heteroauxin), a hormone that promotes the development of

heterocyclic compound: Five-membered rings with one heteroatom: …best-known indole-containing compounds are the indole alkaloids, which have been isolated from plants representing more than 30 families. The mushroom hallucinogens psilocin and psilocybin, the ergot fungus alkaloids, the drugs reserpine and yohimbine, and the poison strychnine all belong to this group.

auxin: …naturally occurring auxin is ß-indolylacetic acid (IAA), which is formed either from the amino acid tryptophan or from the breakdown of carbohydrates known as glycosides. This hormone affects plants by its action on chemical bonds of carbohydrates comprising plant cell walls. The process permits the cells to be irreversibly…

auxin: …naturally occurring auxin is ß-indolylacetic acid (IAA), which is formed either from the amino acid tryptophan or from the breakdown of carbohydrates known as glycosides. This hormone affects plants by its action on chemical bonds of carbohydrates comprising plant cell walls. The process permits the cells to be irreversibly…

auxin: …naturally occurring auxin is ß-indolylacetic acid (IAA), which is formed either from the amino acid tryptophan or from the breakdown of carbohydrates known as glycosides. This hormone affects plants by its action on chemical bonds of carbohydrates comprising plant cell walls. The process permits the cells to be irreversibly…

Cameroon: Sports and recreation: …when the national team, the Indomitable Lions, won the African Cup of Nations in 1984 and in 2000 and when it became the first African team to advance to the quarterfinals of the World Cup in 1990. In 1999 the Lions won the gold medal at the All-Africa Games.

Indonesia, country located off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The most populous country in Southeast Asia and the fourth most populous in the world, Indonesia is situated on an archipelago that lies across the Equator and spans a distance equivalent to

Indonesia Botanical Gardens, tropical garden in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. It is renowned for its research on regional flora. The 215-acre (87-hectare) site was first used by the Dutch for introducing tropical plants from other parts of the world into the region. In 1817 it was converted into a

horizontally divided red-white national flag. Its width-to-length ratio is 2 to 3.Indonesia’s flag was officially adopted on August 17, 1945, three days after the conclusion of World War II. It remained the national flag when Indonesia won recognition of its independence from the Netherlands in

history of Indonesia, a survey of notable events and people in the history of Indonesia. Located off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia in the Indian and Pacific oceans, Indonesia was formerly known as the Dutch East Indies (or Netherlands East Indies). Although Indonesia did not become the

Indonesia, country located off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The most populous country in Southeast Asia and the fourth most populous in the world, Indonesia is situated on an archipelago that lies across the Equator and spans a distance equivalent to

Madagascar: People: …and culture point unequivocally to Indonesian origins, but there is no empirical evidence of how, why, or by what route the first settlers came to the island. Although studies of the winds and currents of the Indian Ocean indicate that the voyage from Indonesia could have been made, there is…

Perhimpunan Indonesia, an Indonesian students’ organization in the Netherlands, formed in the early 1920s in Leiden, which provided a source of intellectual leadership for the Indonesian nationalist movement. This association originated in 1908 as the Indische Vereeniging (Indies Association),

Indonesia: Finance: …1998 the government established the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA) to extricate the financial sector from its monumental debt. IBRA accomplished this task largely through the closure and consolidation of financially precarious banks. The remaining banks then prioritized households and small businesses in their lending, which stimulated growth in the…

cinnamon: loureiroi), Indonesian cinnamon (C. burmannii), and Malabar cinnamon (C. citriodorum).

Indonesia: The rise of nationalism: …1920 and adopted the name Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia; PKI) in 1924.

Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle: …and two opposition parties, the Indonesian Democratic Party (later the PDI-P) and the United Development Party. The Indonesian Democratic Party was created from three nationalist groups and two Christian-based parties: the Indonesian Nationalist Party, the Movement for the Defense of Indonesian Independence, the People’s Party, the Catholic Party, and the…

Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), political party in Indonesia formed in 1973 through the forced merger of five non-Islamic political parties. In the final three decades of the 20th century, it was one of two opposition parties officially recognized by the government. Although it

Malay language: …of the Republic of Indonesia, Bahasa Indonesia, or Indonesian. A Malay pidgin called Bazaar Malay (mĕlayu pasar, “market Malay”) was widely used as a lingua franca in the East Indian archipelago and was the basis of the colonial language used in Indonesia by the Dutch. The version of Bazaar Malay…