industry, group of productive enterprises or organizations that produce or supply goods, services, or sources of income. In economics, industries are generally classified as primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary; secondary industries are further classified as heavy and light. This sector of

William Hogarth: Return to prints: Industry and Idleness (1747) contains, in addition to its obvious moral message, a good deal of self-dramatization, depicting the virtuous apprentice made good in a hostile world. In these years Hogarth’s uncertainty and frustration expressed themselves in a number of unfinished paintings. In several spontaneous…

Indianapolis 500, U.S. automobile race held annually from 1911, except for the war years 1917–18 and 1942–45. The race is always run at Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, a suburban enclave of Indianapolis, Indiana. Drawing crowds of several hundred thousand people, the race is among the

Indianapolis 500: …owner Tony George formed the Indy Racing League (IRL) to counteract the influence of CART. The IRL has overseen the 500 since 1997. CART went bankrupt in 2003 and was re-formed the following year as Champ Car. In 2008 the IRL merged with Champ Car, unifying the two leagues under…

Vincent d’Indy was a French composer and teacher, remarkable for his attempted, and partially successful, reform of French symphonic and dramatic music along lines indicated by César Franck. D’Indy studied under Albert Lavignac, Antoine Marmontel, and Franck (for composition). In 1874 he was

Vincent d’Indy was a French composer and teacher, remarkable for his attempted, and partially successful, reform of French symphonic and dramatic music along lines indicated by César Franck. D’Indy studied under Albert Lavignac, Antoine Marmontel, and Franck (for composition). In 1874 he was

Jimmie Johnson: …year he began competing in IndyCar races.

Ine was an Anglo-Saxon king of the West Saxons, or Wessex, from 688 to 726. One of the most powerful West Saxon rulers before Alfred the Great, Ine was the first West Saxon king to issue a code of laws, which are an important source for the structure of early English society. Ine succeeded to the

Immaculate Conception: …solemnly declared in the bull Ineffabilis Deus that the doctrine was revealed by God and hence was to be firmly believed as such by all Catholics. The feast of the Immaculate Conception is celebrated on December 8 and is usually a holy day of obligation (on which Catholics are required…

musical performance: The 17th and 18th centuries: …a specifically French tradition of inégalité: performing certain evenly written notes unequally, with alternately longer and shorter values.

plasma: Plasma oscillations and parameters: In an inelastic collision, a fraction of the kinetic energy is transferred to the internal energy of the colliding particles. In an atom, for example, the electrons have certain allowed (discrete) energies and are said to be bound. During a collision, a bound electron may be excited—that…

plasma: Plasma oscillations and parameters: In an inelastic collision, a fraction of the kinetic energy is transferred to the internal energy of the colliding particles. In an atom, for example, the electrons have certain allowed (discrete) energies and are said to be bound. During a collision, a bound electron may be excited—that…

Bertram N. Brockhouse: …a variant technique known as inelastic neutron scattering, in which the relative energies of the scattered neutrons are measured to yield additional data. He used inelastic neutron scattering in his pioneering examination of phonons, which are units of the lattice vibrational energy expended by the scattered neutrons. He also developed…

Bertram N. Brockhouse: …a variant technique known as inelastic neutron scattering, in which the relative energies of the scattered neutrons are measured to yield additional data. He used inelastic neutron scattering in his pioneering examination of phonons, which are units of the lattice vibrational energy expended by the scattered neutrons. He also developed…

metallurgy: Testing mechanical properties: …until it begins to undergo plastic strain (i.e., strain that is not recovered when the sample is unloaded). This stress is called the yield stress. It is a property that is the same for various samples of the same alloy, and it is useful in designing structures since it predicts…

inequality, In mathematics, a statement of an order relationship—greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, or less than or equal to—between two numbers or algebraic expressions. Inequalities can be posed either as questions, much like equations, and solved by similar techniques, or as

igneous rock: Fabric: Rocks that are unevenly grained, or inequigranular, are generally characterized either by a seriate fabric, in which the variation in grain size is gradual and essentially continuous, or by a porphyritic fabric, involving more than one distinct range of grain sizes. Both of these kinds of texture are…

perciform: Annotated classification: Family Inermiidae (bonnetmouths) Teeth absent on jaws, vomer and palatine; dorsal fins separated by a deep notch; Marine, western tropical Atlantic Ocean. 2 monotypic genera. Family Centropomidae (snooks, or robalos) Eocene to present. Elongated basslike fishes; head long and

Christian fundamentalism: Origins: …of faith and morals) but inerrant (correct when it spoke on any matters, including history and science).

noble gas, any of the seven chemical elements that make up Group 18 (VIIIa) of the periodic table. The elements are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn), and oganesson (Og). The noble gases are colourless, odourless, tasteless, nonflammable gases. They

chemical analysis: Inert-indicator-electrode potentiometry: Inert-indicator-electrode potentiometry utilizes oxidation-reduction reactions. The potential of a solution that contains an oxidation-reduction couple (e.g., Fe3+ and Fe2+) is dependent on the identity of the couple and on the activities of the oxidized and reduced chemical species in the couple. For a…

inertia, property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any agency that attempts to put it in motion or, if it is moving, to change the magnitude or direction of its velocity. Inertia is a passive property and does not enable a body to do anything except oppose such active agents as forces and

moment of inertia, in physics, quantitative measure of the rotational inertia of a body—i.e., the opposition that the body exhibits to having its speed of rotation about an axis altered by the application of a torque (turning force). The axis may be internal or external and may or may not be fixed.

human ear: Transmission of sound by bone conduction: …of transmission is known as inertial bone conduction. In otosclerosis the fixed stapes interferes with inertial, but not with compressional, bone conduction.

fusion reactor: Principles of inertial confinement: In an inertial confinement fusion (ICF) reactor, a tiny solid pellet of fuel—such as deuterium-tritium (D-T)—would be compressed to tremendous density and temperature so that fusion power is produced in the few nanoseconds before the pellet blows apart. The compression is accomplished by focusing an intense laser…

inertial force, any force invoked by an observer to maintain the validity of Isaac Newton’s second law of motion in a reference frame that is rotating or otherwise accelerating at a constant rate. For specific inertial forces, see centrifugal force; Coriolis force; d’Alembert’s

reference frame: …known as a Newtonian, or inertial reference, frame. The laws are also valid in any set of rigid axes moving with constant velocity and without rotation relative to the inertial frame; this concept is known as the principle of Newtonian or Galilean relativity. A coordinate system attached to the Earth…

inertial guidance system, electronic system that continuously monitors the position, velocity, and acceleration of a vehicle, usually a submarine, missile, or airplane, and thus provides navigational data or control without need for communicating with a base station. The basic components of an

gravity: Gravitational fields and the theory of general relativity: Inertial mass is a mass parameter giving the inertial resistance to acceleration of the body when responding to all types of force. Gravitational mass is determined by the strength of the gravitational force experienced by the body when in the gravitational field g. The Eötvös…

lidar: …Positioning System (GPS) equipment and inertial measurement units (IMUs) in the late 1980s that accurate lidar data were possible.

inertial guidance system, electronic system that continuously monitors the position, velocity, and acceleration of a vehicle, usually a submarine, missile, or airplane, and thus provides navigational data or control without need for communicating with a base station. The basic components of an

reference frame: …known as a Newtonian, or inertial reference, frame. The laws are also valid in any set of rigid axes moving with constant velocity and without rotation relative to the inertial frame; this concept is known as the principle of Newtonian or Galilean relativity. A coordinate system attached to the Earth…

Boeing Company: History of Boeing Company: …was selected to develop the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), a two-stage payload delivery vehicle that can be taken into space by either a space shuttle or a launcher such as the Titan. In 1993 NASA selected Boeing as the prime contractor for the ISS, and two years later the company…

coal: Macerals: The inertinite group makes up 5 to 40 percent of most coals. Their reflectance values are usually the highest in a given sample. The most common inertinite maceral is fusinite, which has a charcoal-like appearance with obvious cell texture. The cells may be either empty or…

coordination compound: Lability and inertness: In considering the mechanisms of substitution (exchange) reactions, Canadian-born American chemist Henry Taube distinguished between complexes that are labile (reacting completely in about one minute in 0.1 M solution at room temperature [25 °C, or 77 °F]) and those that are inert (under the…

Isabel Allende: …Inés del alma mía (2006; Inés of My Soul; TV miniseries 2020) tells the fictionalized story of Inés Suárez, the mistress of conquistador Pedro de Valdivia. La isla bajo el mar (2009; The Island Beneath the Sea) uses the 1791 slave revolt in Haiti as a backdrop for a story…

Isabel Allende: …Inés del alma mía (2006; Inés of My Soul; TV miniseries 2020) tells the fictionalized story of Inés Suárez, the mistress of conquistador Pedro de Valdivia. La isla bajo el mar (2009; The Island Beneath the Sea) uses the 1791 slave revolt in Haiti as a backdrop for a story…

heraldry: Ordinaries: …as a charge is an inescutcheon and often is used to bear the arms of an heraldic heiress (a daughter of a family of no sons). The quarter occupies one-fourth of the shield; the canton, smaller than the quarter, is one-third of the chief. Checky, or chequy, describes the field…

eclipse: Cycles of eclipses: …series are separated by the inex, a period of 29 years minus 20 days—that is, 358 synodic months—after which time the new moon has come from one node to the opposite node. A group of inex periods lasts about 23,000 years, with about 70 groups coexisting at any one time,…

wolf spider: Major genera and species: cinica), and the inexorable wolf spider (H. inexorabilis) are also listed as endangered or critically endangered species.

Harun Farocki: In 1969 Farocki created Nicht löschbares Feuer (The Inextinguishable Fire), a 25-minute agitprop film that explored and criticized the use of napalm during the Vietnam War. Typifying what would become his characteristic film-essay structure, the film built an argument from found film clips and photographic images. Farocki incorporated footage…

Symphony No. 4, Op. 29, symphony for orchestra by Danish composer Carl Nielsen in which he set out to capture in music the idea of an “inextinguishable” life force that runs through all creation. The work premiered on February 1, 1916. In a letter to a friend, Nielsen stated that in this symphony

20th-century international relations: Renewal of arms control: …to link Pershing deployment with intermediate nuclear forces (INF) talks with the U.S.S.R. Reagan tried to seize the moral high ground with his “zero-option” proposal for complete elimination of all such missiles from Europe and a call for new Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) to negotiate real reductions in the…

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, nuclear arms-control accord reached by the United States and the Soviet Union in 1987 in which those two nations agreed to eliminate their stocks of intermediate-range and shorter-range (or “medium-range”) land-based missiles (which could carry nuclear

India: Evolution of a nonsectarian state: …1579 a public edict (maḥẓar) declaring his right to be the supreme arbiter in Muslim religious matters—above the body of Muslim religious scholars and jurists. He had by then also undertaken a number of stern measures to reform the administration of religious grants, which were now available to learned…

papal infallibility, in Roman Catholic theology, the doctrine that the pope, acting as supreme teacher and under certain conditions, cannot err when he teaches in matters of faith or morals. As an element of the broader understanding of the infallibility of the church, this doctrine is based on the

infamy, public disgrace or loss of reputation, particularly as a consequence of criminal conviction. In early common law, conviction for an infamous crime resulted in disqualification to testify as a witness. The criterion for considering a crime infamous was whether or not it stamped the offender

Peter Bogdanovich: The 1980s and beyond: Jealousy (1997), Infamous (2006), and While We’re Young (2014). His notable roles on television included that of a psychiatrist on the HBO series The Sopranos.

ProCon Debate: Can Alternative Energy Effectively Replace Fossil Fuels? ProCon Issue in the News: Three Mile Island, a nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, was the site of a partial meltdown in 1979 that had enormous repercussions on the American nuclear power industry, making nuclear

infamy, public disgrace or loss of reputation, particularly as a consequence of criminal conviction. In early common law, conviction for an infamous crime resulted in disqualification to testify as a witness. The criterion for considering a crime infamous was whether or not it stamped the offender

Graciliano Ramos: His memoirs, Infância (1945; “Childhood”), describe the hazards of his family’s fortunes in the drought-stricken area, his meagre schooling, and the education he pieced together for himself by reading the works of Émile Zola, José Maria de Eça de Queirós, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and Maxim Gorky.

infancy, among humans, the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language approximately one to two years later. A brief treatment of infancy follows. For a full treatment of human mental development during infancy, see human behaviour: Development in infancy. The average newborn

Arnold Gesell: In Infancy and Human Growth (1928), he presented a developmental schedule based on this theory, using 195 items of behaviour to evaluate infants of ages between 3 and 30 months. In 1938 Gesell and Helen Thompson produced a revised developmental schedule for evaluating infants as early…

Infancy Gospel of Thomas, apocryphal Christian text that purports to reveal events in the life of Jesus when he was a child between the ages of 5 and 12. It fills the gap in New Testament accounts between stories of Jesus’ infancy and the narrative, reported in Luke 2:41–52, of his conversation

biblical literature: The Gospel According to Matthew: …chapters 1–2, in which the birth narrative relates Jesus’ descent (by adoption according to the will of God) through Joseph into the Davidic royal line. Though a virgin birth is mentioned, it is not capitalized upon theologically in Matthew. The story includes a flight into Egypt (recalling a Mosaic tradition).…

minor, person below the legal age of majority or adulthood. The age of majority varies in different countries, and even in different jurisdictions within a country. It also differs with the type of activity concerned, such as marrying, purchasing alcohol, or driving an automobile. Twenty-one years

infant and toddler development, the physical, emotional, behavioral, and mental growth of children from ages 0 to 36 months. Different milestones characterize each stage of infant (0 to 12 months) and toddler (12 to 36 months) development. Although most healthy infants and toddlers reach each

infant and toddler health, area of medicine concerned with the well-being and prevention of disease among children ages 0 to 36 months. One of the most important factors in promoting infant health is breast-feeding, which provides strong health protection for infants and has the advantage of being

Australian Aboriginal peoples: Kinship, marriage, and the family: Infant betrothal was common. If arranged before the birth of one or both of the prospective spouses, it was a tentative arrangement subject to later ratification, mainly through continued gift giving to the girl’s parents. In some Aboriginal societies parents of marriageable girls played one…

botulism: Infant botulism, which may result from feeding infants honey contaminated with the clostridial spores, exhibits symptoms such as constipation, poor feeding, and a weak cry; children under the age of one year should not be given honey because of this risk.

Caroline Norton: …were instrumental in introducing the Infant Custody Bill, which was finally carried in 1839. In 1855 she was again involved in a lawsuit because her husband not only refused to pay her allowance but demanded the proceeds of her books. Her eloquent letters of protest to Queen Victoria (English Laws…

infant and toddler development, the physical, emotional, behavioral, and mental growth of children from ages 0 to 36 months. Different milestones characterize each stage of infant (0 to 12 months) and toddler (12 to 36 months) development. Although most healthy infants and toddlers reach each

infant mortality rate: Breastfeeding controversies: The use of infant formula has come under attack in both developing countries and LDCs as well as in the industrialized world. Many forms of infant formula start as powders that must be mixed with water to be used. The World Health Organization (WHO) has questioned the use…

international trade: The infant-industry argument: Advocates of protection often argue that new and growing industries, particularly in less-developed countries, need to be shielded from foreign competition. They contend that costs decline with growth and that some industries must reach a minimum size before they are able to compete…

William Blake: Blake as a poet: …are written for children—in “Infant Joy” only three words have as many as two syllables—and they represent the innocent and the vulnerable, from babies to beetles, protected and fostered by powers beyond their own. In “The Chimney Sweeper,” for example,

infant mortality rate, measure of human infant deaths in a group younger than one year of age. It is an important indicator of the overall physical health of a community. Preserving the lives of newborns has been a long-standing issue in public health, social policy, and humanitarian endeavours.

infant perception, process by which a human infant (age 0 to 12 months) gains awareness of and responds to external stimuli. At birth, infants possess functional sensory systems; vision is somewhat organized, and audition (hearing), olfaction (smell), and touch are fairly mature. However, infants

Infant Phenomenon, fictional character, a child performer who appears in the novel Nicholas Nickleby (1838–39) by Charles Dickens. Ninetta is the beloved eight-year-old daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Crummles, the manager-actors of a troupe of strolling players in which Nicholas Nickleby is a

kindergarten, educational division, a supplement to elementary school intended to accommodate children between the ages of four and six years. Originating in the early 19th century, the kindergarten was an outgrowth of the ideas and practices of Robert Owen in Great Britain, J.H. Pestalozzi in

infant stimulation program, approach to sensory enrichment for very young children, particularly those who are ill or who are otherwise deprived of typical sensory experiences. Infant stimulation is a process of providing supplemental sensory stimulation in any or all of the sensory modalities

infante, the title borne from the 13th century by the children of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs. The title infante was borne by the sons of the sovereign, and the title infanta was given to the daughters and to the wife of an infante. From the reign of John I of Castile (1379–90) there began

infante, the title borne from the 13th century by the children of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs. The title infante was borne by the sons of the sovereign, and the title infanta was given to the daughters and to the wife of an infante. From the reign of John I of Castile (1379–90) there began

Ferdinand I was the king of Aragon from 1412 to 1416, the second son of John I of Castile and Eleanor, daughter of Peter IV of Aragon. Because his elder brother, Henry III, was an invalid, Ferdinand took the battlefield against the Muslims of Granada. When Henry III died in 1406, his son John II

Blondie: bassist Nigel Harrison and guitarist Frank Infante.

Great Fish River, river in the Cape Midlands, Eastern Cape province, southern South Africa. The Great Fish River has a length of 430 miles (692 km) and a drainage area of 11,900 square miles (30,800 square km). Its main northern tributary, the Great Brak River, rises in 7,000-foot- (2,100-metre-)

infanticide, the killing of a newborn child. It has often been interpreted as a primitive method of birth control and a means of ridding a group of its weak and deformed children; but most societies actively desire children and put them to death (or allow them to die) only under exceptional

chimpanzee: Social behaviour: Infanticide and cannibalism by adult males, and to a lesser extent by adult females, have been observed. Victimized infants are not only those of neighbouring groups but also those born to newly immigrated females. Between- and within-group competition among individuals of the same sex is…

memory: Amnesia: Known as infantile amnesia, this universal phenomenon implies that the brain systems required to encode and retrieve specific events are not adequately developed to support long-term memory before age three. Another theory points to developmental changes in the means by which memories are formed and retrieved after early…

Caffey syndrome, a hereditary disease of infants, characterized by swellings of the periosteum (the bone layer where new bone is produced) and the bone cortex of the upper arms, shoulder girdle, and lower jaw. The disease is accompanied by fever and irritability; after a series of periodic

cystinosis: …three distinct forms of cystinosis—nephropathic (infantile), intermediate (adolescent), and nonnephropathic (benign, or ocular)—which differ with respect to clinical presentation, progression, and severity.

infantile hemangioma, a congenital benign tumour made up of endothelial cells (the cells lining the inner surface of a blood vessel) that form vascular spaces, which then become filled with blood cells. Infantile hemangiomas are the most commonly occurring tumours in infants and are only rarely

Oedipus complex: …however, there occurs an “infantile neurosis” that is an important forerunner of similar reactions during the child’s adult life. The superego, the moral factor that dominates the conscious adult mind, also has its origin in the process of overcoming the Oedipus complex. Freud considered the reactions against the Oedipus…

metabolic disease: Peroxisomal disorders: adrenoleukodystrophy, hyperpipecolic acidemia, and infantile Refsum disease. Patients may have severely decreased muscle tone (hypotonia), cerebral malformations, seizures, and an enlarged liver in infancy. Many develop eye abnormalities, in particular a defect in retinal pigment. Patients with Zellweger syndrome also may have small kidney cysts and cranial abnormalities.

strabismus: Congenital, or infantile, strabismus appears in infancy and is presumably due to defects present at birth that are poorly understood. However, given the strong tendency for strabismus to run in families, the causes undoubtedly have some genetic component. While congenital strabismus is more common in…

Batman: Batman in the Silver Age: He commissioned artist Carmine Infantino, whose distinctive work on the Flash had helped usher in the Silver Age, to update the appearance of the hero. Infantino’s “New Look” added a yellow oval to Batman’s chest insignia, and his sharp, stylish penciling marked such a break with the past…

infantry, troops who fight on foot, even though transported to the battlefield by horses, ships, aircraft, tanks and other motorized vehicles, skis, or other means. The term applies equally to troops armed with such hand weapons as the spear and sword in ancient times and with automatic rifles and

armoured vehicle: …tank is the principal fighting armoured vehicle. Other types armed with large-calibre main guns include tank destroyers and assault guns. This article traces the development of armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and other armoured vehicles designed primarily as platforms for assault troops.

Sir Basil Liddell Hart: …he wrote the Army’s official Infantry Training manual that included his “battle drill” system evolved in 1917 and his so-called “expanding torrent” method of attack, which grew out of infiltration tactics introduced in 1917–18. Liddell Hart became an early advocate of air power and mechanized tank warfare. Defining strategy as…

T. Berry Brazelton: His best-known books, such as Infants and Mothers (1969), Toddlers and Parents (1974), and Families: Crisis and Caring (1990), focused on the parent-child relationship and the nature of individual differences in the behaviour of infants and young children.

Wallace Henry Thurman: …best known for his novel Infants of the Spring (1932), a satire of what he believed were the overrated creative figures of the Harlem scene. Some reviewers welcomed Thurman’s bold insight, while others vilified him as a racial traitor. Thurman never again wrote on African-American subjects.

infarction, death of tissue resulting from a failure of blood supply, commonly due to obstruction of a blood vessel by a blood clot or narrowing of the blood-vessel channel. The dead tissue is called an infarct. Myocardial infarction (heart attack)—death of a section of heart muscle—results from

benthos: …upon bottom objects; the so-called infauna live within the sediments of the seafloor. By far the best-studied benthos are the macrobenthos, those forms larger than 1 mm (0.04 inch), which are dominated by polychaete worms, pelecypods, anthozoans, echinoderms, sponges, ascidians, and crustaceans. Meiobenthos, those organisms between 0.1 and 1 mm…

pregnancy: Abortion: An infected abortion is an abortion associated with infection of the genital organs.

bacteria: Bacteria in medicine: …of the body and cause infection.

arthritis: Infectious arthritis: Infectious arthritides are a set of arthritic conditions caused by exposure to certain microorganisms. In some instances the microorganisms infiltrate the joint space and cause destruction, whereas in others an infection stimulates an inappropriate immune response leading to reactive arthritis. Typically caused by…

infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, an inflammation of the conjunctiva or the cornea of the eye in cattle as the result of an infection; early viral involvement is suspected. Moraxella bovis is usually found in discharge from the affected eye; other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus and

Sydenham chorea, a neurological disorder characterized by irregular and involuntary movements of muscle groups in various parts of the body that follow streptococcal infection. The name St. Vitus Dance derives from the late Middle Ages, when persons with the disease attended the chapels of St.

infectious disease, in medicine, a process caused by an agent, often a type of microorganism, that impairs a person’s health. In many cases, infectious disease can be spread from person to person, either directly (e.g., via skin contact) or indirectly (e.g., via contaminated food or water). An

endocarditis: Traditionally, infective endocarditis has been classified as acute or subacute. Acute infective endocarditis generally is caused by Staphylococcus, Pneumococcus, or Gonococcus bacteria or by fungi. This form of endocarditis develops rapidly, with fever, malaise, and other signs of systemic infection coupled with abnormal cardiac function and

feline distemper, viral disease of cats, kittens two to six months old being most susceptible. Highly contagious, it is caused by a parvovirus that is closely related to canine parvovirus type 2. About 3 to 10 days after exposure to the disease, infected kittens cough and sneeze, have running eyes