1957 flu pandemic: …a new influenza A subtype, H3N2, which gave rise to the 1968 flu pandemic.

bird flu: Bird flu in humans: In 2013 a strain of H7N9 capable of causing severe pneumonia and death emerged in China, with the first confirmed cases detected in February that year and dozens more reported in the following months. It was the first H7N9 outbreak reported in humans.

cephalosporin: …have proven effective against gonorrhea, Haemophilus influenzae, and the abscesses caused by Bacteroides fragilis. The ability of many cephalosporin derivatives to penetrate the cerebral spinal fluid makes them effective in treating meningitis.

influenza pandemic (H1N1) of 2009, the first major influenza outbreak in the 21st century, noted for its rapid global spread, which was facilitated by an unusually high degree of viral contagiousness. Global dissemination of the virus was further expedited by the unprecedented rates of passenger

influenza pandemic of 1918–19, the most severe influenza outbreak of the 20th century and, in terms of total numbers of deaths, among the most devastating pandemics in human history. Influenza is caused by a virus that is transmitted from person to person through airborne respiratory secretions. An

influenza A H1N1, virus that is best known for causing widespread outbreaks, including epidemics and pandemics, of acute upper or lower respiratory tract infection. The influenza A H1N1 virus is a member of the family Orthomyxoviridae (a group of RNA viruses). Type A is one of the three major types

antigenic drift: …drift is best characterized in influenza type A viruses. The viral coats, or outer surfaces, of these viruses contain two major antigenic glycoproteins—hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N)—which differ between influenza A subtypes (e.g., H1N1, H3N2, H5N1). The subtle mutations accumulated through antigenic drift of these subtypes give rise to different…

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: …great influenza epidemics, and the B viruses cause smaller localized outbreaks. The C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness in humans. Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: The C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness in humans. Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

influenza: Treatment and prevention: Individual protection against the flu may be bolstered by injection of a vaccine containing two or more circulating influenza viruses. These viruses are produced in chick embryos and rendered noninfective; standard commercial preparations ordinarily include the type B influenza virus and several of the A subtypes.…

croup: Viral croup: frequently with the parainfluenza and influenza viruses. Such infections are most prevalent among children under age three, and they strike most frequently in late fall and winter. Generally, the onset of viral croup is preceded by symptoms of the common cold for several days.

antigenic drift: …drift is best characterized in influenza type A viruses. The viral coats, or outer surfaces, of these viruses contain two major antigenic glycoproteins—hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N)—which differ between influenza A subtypes (e.g., H1N1, H3N2, H5N1). The subtle mutations accumulated through antigenic drift of these subtypes give rise to different…

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: …great influenza epidemics, and the B viruses cause smaller localized outbreaks. The C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness in humans. Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: The C viruses cause only mild respiratory illness in humans. Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

influenza: Classification of influenza viruses: Influenza D viruses are not known to infect humans and have been observed only in pigs and cattle.

electronic game: Personal computer games: Infocom, perhaps the most successful computer game company of the early 1980s, adapted this style of game to a variety of literary formats, such as science fiction and mysteries. Infocom began with the popular Zork series, inspired directly by Adventure and originally developed by a…

Robert Crowley: Other works include An informacion and Peticion agaynst the oppressours of the pore Commons of this Realme (1548), remarkable for its attack on the “more than Turkish tyranny” of the landlords and capitalists of that day; A briefe discourse against the outwarde apparell and Ministring garmentes of the…

diversion: Forms of diversion: …are two types of diversion: informal and formal. Informal diversion occurs when an official in the justice system decides, by using the appropriate discretion, that a case would be better kept out of the justice system. Such decisions occur every day. Police may consider diverting a suspect when the offense…

urban culture: The neocolonial city: …what has been called the informal economy in these cities. The informal economy consists of urban services and products provided by the neocolonial city’s poorest denizens, the petty hawkers, the shoeshine boys, the household help, the rag pickers, and others who form a class of petty commodity producers and sellers.…

informal organization, the manner in which an organization operates in reality, as opposed to its formal distribution of roles and responsibilities. The concept of informal organization draws attention to the patterns of activity and interpersonal relationships that develop inside an organization

free school, school in which the teaching system is based on an environment structured to encourage the child to become actively involved in the learning process. The free school stresses individualized rather than group instruction, and children proceed from one step to another at their own rate

Asia: General considerations: …what is known as the informal sector—a term referring to small, often family-owned businesses operating outside state regulation or control and mainly engaged in petty services or petty manufacturing.

analytic philosophy: Nature of analytic philosophy: …tradition, sometimes referred to as informalism, similarly turned to the sentences in which the concept was expressed but instead emphasized their diverse uses in ordinary language and everyday situations, the idea being to elucidate the concept by noting how its various features are reflected in how people actually talk and…

Latin American art: Trends, c. 1950–c. 1970: …America by its French name, Informalism, and it had many Latin American adherents. The name Informalism was preferred because it suggested the contrast between these intuitive abstractions and the more carefully plotted geometric shapes of such “formalist” artists as Torres-García. Beginning about 1960 the Costa Rican artist Lola Fernández and…

ethnography: …relationships with individuals, known as informants, who can provide specific information on ritual, kinship, or other significant aspects of cultural life. In this process also the anthropologist risks the danger of biased viewpoints, as those who most willingly act as informants frequently are individuals who are marginal to the group…

Marvin Hamlisch: …until 2009, with music for The Informant!

indictment: …offenses, the others being the information (i.e., a written accusation resembling an indictment, prepared and presented to the court by a prosecuting official) and, for petty offenses, a complaint of the aggrieved party or of a police officer.

attention: Relation to information theory: …the human brain as an information processor, a type of computer, was becoming more prevalent, and the notion that one might be able to quantify the gain or flow of information proved attractive. Information itself was defined as that which reduces or removes uncertainty. The process of removing uncertainty was…

computer science: Security and information assurance: Security and information assurance refers to policy and technical elements that protect information systems by ensuring their availability, integrity, authentication, and appropriate levels of confidentiality. Information security concepts occur in many areas of computer science, including operating systems, computer networks, databases, and software.

adverse selection: …in which there is an asymmetry of information—that is, where one party has more or better information than the other party. Asymmetry of information impacts both buyers and sellers:

environmental economics: Sources of bias: …or more of the following: information bias (where the respondent has no information), hypothetical bias (where the respondent will neither pay nor give a reasonable answer), starting-point bias (where the respondent is influenced by the initial numbers given as examples or as part of a range in survey), and strategic…

Cominform, agency of international communism founded under Soviet auspices in 1947 and dissolved by Soviet initiative in 1956. The Communist Information Bureau was founded at Wilcza Góra, Pol., in September 1947, with nine members—the communist parties of the U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,

economics: Information economics: Toward the end of the 20th century, information economics became an increasingly important specialization. It is almost wholly the legacy of a single article entitled “The Market for ‘Lemons’: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism” by George Akerlof (1970). Akerlof asserted that the…

computer science: Information management: Information management (IM) is primarily concerned with the capture, digitization, representation, organization, transformation, and presentation of information. Because a computer’s main memory provides only temporary storage, computers are equipped with auxiliary disk storage devices that permanently store data. These devices are characterized by…

information processing , the acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. In recent years, the term has often been applied to computer-based operations specifically. In popular usage, the term information refers to facts and opinions provided and

artificial intelligence programming language: …Carnegie Mellon University developed their Information Processing Language (IPL), a computer language tailored for AI programming. At the heart of IPL was a highly flexible data structure that they called a list. A list is simply an ordered sequence of items of data. Some or all of the items in…

ARPANET: Roots of a network: …the first director of ARPA’s Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), the SAGE network demonstrated above all else the enormous power of interactive computing—or, as he referred to it in a seminal 1960 essay, of “man-computer symbiosis.” In his essay, one of the most important in the history of computing, Licklider…

information processing: Basic concepts: Information processors are components of an information system, which is a class of constructs. An abstract model of an information system features four basic elements: processor, memory, receptor, and effector (Figure 1). The processor has several functions: (1) to carry out elementary information processes on…

military intelligence: Levels of intelligence: …a similar manner; often called information requirements, they are those items of information concerning the enemy and his environment that must be collected and processed in order to meet the intelligence needs of the military commander.

information retrieval, recovery of information, especially in a database stored in a computer. Two main approaches are matching words in the query against the database index (keyword searching) and traversing the database using hypertext or hypermedia links. Evolving information-retrieval

information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact with their customers

information science, discipline that deals with the processes of storing and transferring information. It brings together concepts and methods from disciplines such as library science, computer science and engineering, linguistics, and psychology in order to develop techniques and devices to aid in

information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact with their customers

information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact with their customers

information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their operations, interact with their customers

information system: Information system infrastructure and architecture: A well-designed information system rests on a coherent foundation that supports responsive change—and, thus, the organization’s agility—as new business or administrative initiatives arise. Known as the information system infrastructure, the foundation consists of core telecommunications networks, databases and data warehouses,…

information system: Information systems audit: The effectiveness of an information system’s controls is evaluated through an information systems audit. An audit aims to establish whether information systems are safeguarding corporate assets, maintaining the integrity of stored and communicated data, supporting corporate objectives effectively, and operating efficiently. It…

ARPANET: Roots of a network: …the first director of ARPA’s Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), the SAGE network demonstrated above all else the enormous power of interactive computing—or, as he referred to it in a seminal 1960 essay, of “man-computer symbiosis.” In his essay, one of the most important in the history of computing, Licklider…

tariff: Tariff reduction and the growth of international trade: In 1997 the WTO’s Information Technology Agreement (ITA) and Basic Telecommunications Agreement (BTA) reduced the tariffs on computer and telecommunications products and some intangible goods considered to be drivers of the developing knowledge-based economy. The rapid growth of the Internet and electronic commerce (e-commerce) represented

an overview of common careers in the field of information technology

information theory, a mathematical representation of the conditions and parameters affecting the transmission and processing of information. Most closely associated with the work of the American electrical engineer Claude Shannon in the mid-20th century, information theory is chiefly of interest to

freedom of information (FOI), a presumptive right of access to official information, qualified by exemptions and subject to independent adjudication by a third party. The adjudicator may be a court, a tribunal, a commissioner, or an ombudsman and may have the power to require, or only to recommend,

quiz show: …the quiz show style of Information, Please, which involved a panel answering questions on diverse subjects mailed in by listeners. This show was such a success that it had several imitators, the most popular of which was The Quiz Kids, which used precocious children on the studio panel.

Beck: …a spacey psychedelic gloss to The Information (2006), which came replete with stickers that invited listeners to create a do-it-yourself jewel box cover to mirror Beck’s upbeat musical pastiche.

Martin Amis: (1978), Other People (1981), The Information (1995), and Night Train (1997).

information-access law, statute or regulation that determines who may or may not see information held by organizations, whether governmental or otherwise. Information-access laws fall within one or more of five categories: It will be immediately apparent that this typology is based both on the

Cominform, agency of international communism founded under Soviet auspices in 1947 and dissolved by Soviet initiative in 1956. The Communist Information Bureau was founded at Wilcza Góra, Pol., in September 1947, with nine members—the communist parties of the U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,

ITAR-TASS, (Russian: “Information Telegraph Agency of Russia–Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union”), Russian news agency formed in 1992 after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. ITAR reports on domestic news, while TASS reports on world events, including news from the other countries of the

Jorge Luis Borges: Life: …El informe de Brodie (1970; Doctor Brodie’s Report), which deals with revenge, murder, and horror, and El libro de arena (1975; The Book of Sand), both of which are allegories combining the simplicity of a folk storyteller with the complex vision of a man who has explored the labyrinths of…

Spain: Domestic reforms: Although his famous Informe sobre la ley agraria (“Report on the Agrarian Law”) is not original, the book is significant in that it attempts to apply dogmatic laissez-faire ideology to Spanish conditions and is one of the foundations of Spanish liberalism.

health law: Patients’ rights: …States regarding the doctrine of informed consent. Originally articulated in the 1947 Nuremberg Code as applied to human experimentation, today it applies to medical treatment as well. This doctrine requires physicians to share certain information with patients before asking for their consent to treatment. The doctrine is particularly applicable to…

The Informer, novel of betrayal by Liam O’Flaherty set during the Irish “troubles” of the 1920s, published in 1925. The novel tells the story of Gypo Nolan’s betrayal of a friend to the police, his fatal wounding by his former comrades, and his ultimate redemption just before his

The Informer, British film drama, released in 1935, that explores issues of personal values and conscience. It won four Academy Awards. The film centres on Gypo Nolan (played by Victor McLaglen), an Irish drunkard who informs on the whereabouts of his best friend, a member of the Irish Republican

Agnes de Mille: … (1971), Texas Fourth (1976), and The Informer (1988). Among her several books are Dance to the Piper (1952), To a Young Dancer (1962), The Book of the Dance (1963), Lizzie Borden: A Dance of Death (1968), and Speak to Me, Dance with Me (1973). She also wrote two autobiographies, And…

Bret Easton Ellis: Later novels: …followed up American Psycho with The Informers (1994) and Glamorama (1998), the latter of which is a parody of celebrity culture centering on a male model who becomes involved in the world of terrorism and surveillance. By contrast, the metafictional novel Lunar Park (2005), which features a fictionalized version of…

Narayana Murthy: …Indian software entrepreneur who cofounded Infosys Technologies Ltd., the first Indian company to be listed on an American stock exchange.

infotainment, television programming that presents information (as news) in a manner intended to be entertaining. Infotainment came about through the blurring of the line between information and entertainment in news and current affairs programming, whether in the selection of news stories (e.g.,

bivalve: Internal features: …the gill (the infrabranchial, or inhalant, chamber) to that area above it (the suprabranchial, or exhalant, chamber). The anus and the urogenital pores also open into the exhalant chamber so that all waste products exit the animal in the exhalant stream. The paired labial palps in the mantle cavity are…

Lipalian interval: …the latest Precambrian (sometimes termed Eocambrian) to the earliest Cambrian.

Lipalian interval: …the latest Precambrian (sometimes termed Eocambrian) to the earliest Cambrian.

protist: Cilia and flagella: Called the infraciliature, or kinetidal system, it lies principally in the outer, or cortical, layer of the ciliate’s body (only the outermost layer is called the pellicle) and serves primarily as a skeletal system for the organism. The system is composed of an array of single or…

human skeleton: The upper jaws: The infraorbital foramen, an opening into the floor of the eye socket, is the forward end of a canal through which passes the infraorbital branch of the maxillary nerve, the second division of the fifth cranial nerve. It lies slightly below the lower margin of the…

human nervous system: Maxillary nerve: …soft palate, and (4) the infraorbital, zygomaticotemporal, and zygomaticofacial nerves, serving the upper lip, the lateral surfaces of the nose, the lower eyelid and conjunctiva, and the skin on the cheek and the side of the head behind the eye.

Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), U.S.-U.K.-Netherlands satellite launched in 1983 that was the first space observatory to map the entire sky at infrared wavelengths. After a series of brief studies by infrared instruments carried on sounding rockets had detected about 4,000 celestial sources

infrared astronomy, study of astronomical objects through observations of the infrared radiation that they emit. Various types of celestial objects—including the planets of the solar system, stars, nebulae, and galaxies—give off energy at wavelengths in the infrared region of the electromagnetic

John C. Polanyi: …technique that is known as infrared chemiluminescence based on the observation that molecules, when excited, emit infrared light. By means of spectroscopic analysis of the changes in emitted light that take place during a chemical reaction, he was able to trace the exchange of chemical bonds, thus helping to detail…

warning system: Infrared: Infrared sensors on the ground, or in aircraft or spacecraft, can detect such hot spots as motor-vehicle engines, hot jet engines, missile exhausts, even campfires. They have good location accuracy and high sensitivity to signals, without registering such false targets as sun reflections.

warning system: Infrared: In the very near infrared region, infrared imaging detectors use specially sensitized photographic film to reveal forms hidden by camouflage. More important are the detectors used in the far infrared region; objects at room temperature radiate sufficient energy for detection at ranges of several miles. Infrared imagery can have…

electromagnetic radiation: Infrared radiation: Infrared photography of distant objects from the air takes advantage of this phenomenon. For the same reason, infrared astronomy enables researchers to observe cosmic objects through large clouds of interstellar dust that scatter infrared radiation substantially less than visible light. However, since water vapour, ozone,…

infrared radiation, that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the long wavelength, or red, end of the visible-light range to the microwave range. Invisible to the eye, it can be detected as a sensation of warmth on the skin. The infrared range is usually divided into three

warning system: Infrared: Infrared sensors on the ground, or in aircraft or spacecraft, can detect such hot spots as motor-vehicle engines, hot jet engines, missile exhausts, even campfires. They have good location accuracy and high sensitivity to signals, without registering such false targets as sun reflections.

infrared source, in astronomy, any of various celestial objects that radiate measurable quantities of energy in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such objects include the Sun and the planets, certain stars, nebulae, and galaxies. A number of known infrared sources can be observed

Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), European Space Agency (ESA) satellite that observed astronomical sources of infrared radiation from 1995 to 1998. After the spectacular success in 1983 of the short-lived Infrared Astronomical Satellite, which produced the first infrared all-sky survey, the ESA

chemical analysis: Infrared spectrophotometry: Absorbed infrared radiation causes rotational changes in molecules, as described for microwave absorption above, and also causes vibrational changes. The vibrational energy levels within a molecule correspond to the ways in which the individual atoms or groups of atoms vibrate relative to the…

spectroscopy: Infrared spectroscopy: This technique covers the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between the visible (wavelength of 800 nanometres) and the short-wavelength microwave (0.3 millimetre). The spectra observed in this region are primarily associated with the internal vibrational motion of molecules, but a few light molecules…

infrared telescope, instrument designed to detect and resolve infrared radiation from sources outside Earth’s atmosphere such as nebulae, young stars, and gas and dust in other galaxies. (See infrared astronomy.) Infrared telescopes do not differ significantly from reflecting telescopes designed to

infrared radiation, that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends from the long wavelength, or red, end of the visible-light range to the microwave range. Invisible to the eye, it can be detected as a sensation of warmth on the skin. The infrared range is usually divided into three

infrasonics, vibrational or stress waves in elastic media, having a frequency below those of sound waves that can be detected by the human ear—i.e., below 20 hertz. The range of frequencies extends down to geologic vibrations that complete one cycle in 100 seconds or longer. In nature such waves

infrasonics, vibrational or stress waves in elastic media, having a frequency below those of sound waves that can be detected by the human ear—i.e., below 20 hertz. The range of frequencies extends down to geologic vibrations that complete one cycle in 100 seconds or longer. In nature such waves

scapula: …concave areas, the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae. The spine and fossae give attachment to muscles that act in rotating the arm. The spine ends in the acromion, a process that articulates with the clavicle, or collarbone, in front and helps form the upper part of the shoulder socket. The lateral…

political system: City and local government: Aging infrastructure has become an issue of pressing national importance in the United States, with the major cities obviously suffering in this area. Grave social problems—for example, violent crime (especially that committed by youths in poverty-stricken areas), drug trafficking, unemployment, and homelessness—are concentrated to such a…

Joe Biden: Presidency: …the Senate passed the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, a drastically scaled-back ($550 billion) version of a wide-ranging infrastructure plan announced by Biden in March. Its smaller scale was made necessary by objections from Republicans and conservative Democrats to spending levels, tax increases on corporations and the wealthy, and…

radiation: Linear energy transfer and track structure: …is concentrated in the “infratrack,” a very narrow region extending typically on the order of 10 interatomic distances perpendicular to the particle trajectory. The extent of the infratrack is dependent on the velocity of the particle, and it is defined as the distance over which the electric field of…

animal development: The brain and spinal cord: …forms a funnel-shaped depression, the infundibulum, which becomes connected with the pituitary, or hypophysis, the most important gland of internal secretion (i.e., endocrine gland) in vertebrates. Indeed, the posterior lobe of the hypophysis is actually derived from the floor of the diencephalon. Tissues of the infundibulum and the posterior lobe…

Christianity: Christian mysticism: …the help of grace, and infused contemplation, which was a pure and unmerited gift, framed much of this discussion. Other Roman Catholic theologians, such as Cuthbert Butler in Western Mysticism (1922) and Anselm Stolz in Theologie der Mystik (1936), broke with Neoscholasticism to consider the wider scriptural and patristic tradition.…

mesozoan: …into minute organisms known as infusorigens; these are reduced hermaphroditic individuals that remain in the axial cell of the rhombogen and form sperm and egg cells. Following fertilization within the rhombogen, the zygotes develop into ciliated infusoriform larvae, which escape from the parent rhombogen and from the cephalopod. It is…

Freyr, in Norse mythology, the ruler of peace and fertility, rain, and sunshine and the son of the sea god Njörd. Although originally one of the Vanir tribe, he was included with the Aesir. Gerd, daughter of the giant Gymir, was his wife. Worshiped especially in Sweden, he was also well-known in

ING Group NV, global financial institution of Dutch origin that provides services in banking, insurance, and asset management. It is the Netherlands’ largest financial services company. Headquarters are in Amsterdam. ING Group was created as Internationale Nederlanden Groep (“International