lezginka, folk dance originating among the Lezgian people of the Caucasus. It is a male solo dance (often with a sword) and also a couple dance. The man, imitating the eagle, falls to his knees, leaps up, and dances with concise steps and strong, sharp arm and body movements. When the dance is

Caucasian languages: The Lezgian languages: This language group includes Lezgi (with 240,000 speakers in Dagestan and about 170,000 in Azerbaijan); Tabasaran (about 90,000); Agul (about 12,000); Rutul (about 15,000); Tsakhur (about 11,000); Archi (fewer than 1,000); Kryz (about 6,000); Budukh (about 2,000);

history of Transcaucasia: Russian penetration: …Circassians of Abkhazia and the Lezgians of Dagestan, was more fierce and protracted. During 30 years, from 1815 to 1845, the Russians could do little more than hold these mountain peoples at bay. Some were sustained by patriotic feelings, others by religious fervour. The Circassians of the Western Caucasus were…

Caucasian languages: The Lezgian languages: This language group includes Lezgi (with 240,000 speakers in Dagestan and about 170,000 in Azerbaijan); Tabasaran (about 90,000); Agul (about 12,000); Rutul (about 15,000); Tsakhur (about 11,000); Archi (fewer than 1,000);

lezginka, folk dance originating among the Lezgian people of the Caucasus. It is a male solo dance (often with a sword) and also a couple dance. The man, imitating the eagle, falls to his knees, leaps up, and dances with concise steps and strong, sharp arm and body movements. When the dance is

Giuseppe Peano: …Principles of Integral Calculus”) and Lezioni di analisi infinitesimale, 2 vol. (1893; “Lessons of Infinitesimal Analysis”), are two of the most important works on the development of the general theory of functions since the work of the French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789–1857). In Applicazioni geometriche del calcolo infinitesimale (1887; “Geometrical…

Beirut: Modern Beirut: …unified Christian militia of the Lebanese Forces (LF). In West Beirut, however, the situation drifted to near total anarchy, as the different Muslim militias repeatedly clashed with one another in the streets to settle sectarian or partisan scores. Security collapsed under these circumstances, and many Lebanese and resident foreigners were…

steel: Controlling temperature: …can be achieved in a ladle furnace (LF). This is a small electric-arc furnace with an 8- to 25-megavolt-ampere transformer, three electrodes for arc heating, and the ladle acting as the furnace shell—as shown in A in the figure. Argon or electromagnetic stirring is applied for better heat transfer. Most…

Pakistan: Military government: He also issued a Legal Framework Order (LFO) that broke up the single unit of West Pakistan and reconstituted the original four provinces of Pakistan—i.e., Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province, and Balochistan. The 1970 election therefore was not only meant to restore parliamentary government to the country, it was…

Pakistan: Reinstated constitution: …in a document called the Legal Framework Order (LFO). In addition to extending Musharraf’s term, the LFO expanded the president’s powers and increased the number of members of both houses of the legislature. Parliamentary elections followed in October under the limitations imposed by the LFO, and Musharraf’s adopted political party,…

chemical bonding: Ligand field theory: …two sets of orbitals, the ligand-field splitting energy (LFSE) is the ligand field version of the CFSE in crystal field theory, and from this point on the construction of the lowest-energy electron configuration is much the same as in crystal field theory. However, ligand field theory is less artificial, allows…

breeder reactor: Thermal breeder reactors: …thermal breeder known as the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) employs molten fluoride salt to transfer heat to the turbines. Such reactors do not require fuel rods, and interest in developing the technology has grown in the early 21st century.

chaebol: …the largest chaebols are Samsung, LG, Hyundai, and SK Group. In the early 21st century the chaebols produced about two-thirds of South Korea’s exports and attracted the greater part of the country’s foreign capital inflows.

Gay Pride, annual celebration, usually in June in the United States and sometimes at other times in other countries, of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) identity. Gay Pride commemorates the Stonewall riots, which began in the early hours of June 28, 1969, after police raided

lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer community (LGBTQ community), in any country, region, city, or other locality, a group of persons who identify as lesbian, gay (in the narrow sense of being a male who is sexually or romantically attracted to other males), bisexual, transgender, or

Gay Pride, annual celebration, usually in June in the United States and sometimes at other times in other countries, of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) identity. Gay Pride commemorates the Stonewall riots, which began in the early hours of June 28, 1969, after police raided

last glacial maximum (LGM), the most recent geologic interval, which spanned 29,000 to 19,000 years ago, in which the geographic extent of ice sheet and glacier coverage on Earth’s surface peaked. Some 8 percent of the planet’s total surface was covered in ice, and sea levels were approximately 125

human eye: Geniculate neurons: In general, the lateral geniculate neuron is characterized by an accentuation of the centre-periphery arrangement, so that the two parts of the receptive field tend to cancel each other out completely when stimulated together, by contrast with the ganglion cell in which one or another would predominate. Thus,…

luteinizing hormone (LH), one of two gonadotropic hormones (i.e., hormones concerned with the regulation of the gonads, or sex glands) that is produced by the pituitary gland. LH is a glycoprotein and operates in conjunction with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Following the release of the egg

14th Dalai Lama is the title of the Tibetan Buddhist monk Tenzin Gyatso, the first Dalai Lama to become a global figure, largely for his advocacy of Buddhism and of the rights of the people of Tibet. Despite his fame, he dispensed with much of the pomp surrounding his office, describing himself as

Tibet: Tibet under Manchu overlordship: …an antagonist to Sangs-rgyas-rgya-mtsho when Lha-bzang Khan, fourth successor of Güüshi, sought to assert rights as king that had atrophied under his immediate predecessors. The behaviour of the sixth Dalai Lama, Tshangs-dbyangs-rgya-mtsho, who preferred poetry and libertine amusements to religion, gave Lha-bzang his opportunity. In 1705, with the emperor’s approval,…

Lha-mo, in Tibetan Buddhism, the only goddess among the “Eight Terrible Ones,” who are defenders of the faith. See

Apa Sherpa is a Nepali mountaineer and guide who set a record for most ascents of Mount Everest (21) that was later equaled by other Sherpas before being surpassed in 2018. Apa was raised in the small village of Thami (or Thame) in the Khumbu valley of far northern Nepal, just west of Mount

14th Dalai Lama is the title of the Tibetan Buddhist monk Tenzin Gyatso, the first Dalai Lama to become a global figure, largely for his advocacy of Buddhism and of the rights of the people of Tibet. Despite his fame, he dispensed with much of the pomp surrounding his office, describing himself as

14th Dalai Lama is the title of the Tibetan Buddhist monk Tenzin Gyatso, the first Dalai Lama to become a global figure, largely for his advocacy of Buddhism and of the rights of the people of Tibet. Despite his fame, he dispensed with much of the pomp surrounding his office, describing himself as

Lhasa, capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region, southwestern China. It is located at an elevation of 11,975 feet (3,650 metres) in the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains of southern Tibet near the Lhasa River, a tributary of the Yarlung Zangbo (Tsangpo) River (the name of the Brahmaputra River in Tibet).

Lhasa Apso, breed of small sturdy dog from Tibet, where it is called abso seng kye (variously translated as “bark lion sentinel dog” or “bearded lion dog”). It is named for the Tibetan capital, Lhasa, and possibly from abso or rapso, meaning goat, in reference to its heavy coat. Lhasas were bred by

stela: …is the Lhasa rdo-ring (Long Stone of Lhasa), which stands in front of the main entrance to the Jo-khang temple in Tibet, regarded as the holiest of holy places and the centre of Tibet. On the stela is inscribed the text of a bilingual Tibetan-Chinese peace treaty of 821–822…

Tibet: Drainage and soils: …east and, after joining the Lhasa River south of Lhasa, forms the Brahmaputra.

Samye Debate, in Tibetan Buddhism, a two-year debate (c. 792–794 ce) between Indian and Chinese Buddhist teachers held at Samye, the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet. The debate centred on the question of whether enlightenment (bodhi) is attained gradually through activity or suddenly and without

meteor and meteoroid: Meteorites—meteoroids that survive atmospheric entry: …often referred to as the Late Heavy Bombardment, can be seen in the ancient, heavily cratered terrains of the Moon, Mars, Mercury, and many other bodies.

Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world’s most powerful particle accelerator. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was constructed by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in the same 27-km (17-mile) tunnel that housed its Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP). The tunnel is circular and

mining: Horizontal openings: drifts: Known as LHD units, these come in various sizes denoted by the volume or weight of the load that they can carry. The smallest ones have a capacity of less than 1 cubic metre (1 ton), whereas the largest have a 25-ton capacity. In small, narrow vein…

mining: Horizontal openings: drifts: Known as LHD units, these come in various sizes denoted by the volume or weight of the load that they can carry. The smallest ones have a capacity of less than 1 cubic metre (1 ton), whereas the largest have a 25-ton capacity. In small, narrow vein…

Van Gogh Museum: …van Gogh admired, most notably Léon Lhermitte and Jean-François Millet. The museum features a research library that is open to the public and an auditorium for public lectures and films about van Gogh.

Josef Lhévinne was a piano virtuoso in the Romantic tradition, noted for his masterly technique, sonorous tone, and careful musicianship. Lhévinne studied at the Moscow Conservatory, made his debut in 1889 in Moscow, and won the coveted Rubinstein Prize in 1895. From 1902 to 1906 he was professor

Josef Lhévinne: His wife, Rosina Lhévinne, née Bessie (1880–1976), was an eminent pianist and teacher (her pupils included Van Cliburn, David Bar-Illan, John Browning, Mischa Dichter, and Daniel Pollack) and frequently appeared in two-piano recitals with her husband.

human genetic disease: Diseases associated with single-gene non-Mendelian inheritance: …of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), that result from inherited mutations in the mitochondrial DNA; and diseases that result from mutations in imprinted genes (e.g., Angelman syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome).

André Lhote was a French painter, sculptor, writer, and educator who was a prominent critic and teacher of modern art. Lhote studied decorative sculpture at the École des Beaux-Arts in Bordeaux from 1898 to 1904. About 1905 he took up painting, and a year later he moved to Paris. Lhote initially

African music: History: …1956 by the French ethnologist Henri Lhote in the Tassili-n-Ajjer plateau of Algeria. Attributed on stylistic grounds to the Saharan period of the Neolithic hunters (c. 6000–4000 bce), this painting is probably one of the oldest extant testimonies to music and dance in Africa. The body adornment and movement style…

Lhotse, mountain massif in the Himalayas on the border of Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It consists of three summits, the highest of which—Lhotse I at 27,940 feet (8,516 meters)—is the world’s fourth tallest peak. Lhotse lies just south of Mount Everest, to which it is joined by a

Lhotse, mountain massif in the Himalayas on the border of Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It consists of three summits, the highest of which—Lhotse I at 27,940 feet (8,516 meters)—is the world’s fourth tallest peak. Lhotse lies just south of Mount Everest, to which it is joined by a

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), a neurohormone consisting of 10 amino acids that is produced in the arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the two gonadotropins—luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)—by the anterior

prostate cancer: Treatment: …hormone therapy involves drugs called LHRH analogs, or LHRH agonists, that chemically block the production of androgens. Side effects of hormone therapy may include reduced libido, abnormal growth or sensitivity of the breasts, and hot flashes. Orchiectomy, or removal of the testes, cuts off the tumour’s supply of testosterone. This…

prostate cancer: Treatment: …hormone therapy involves drugs called LHRH analogs, or LHRH agonists, that chemically block the production of androgens. Side effects of hormone therapy may include reduced libido, abnormal growth or sensitivity of the breasts, and hot flashes. Orchiectomy, or removal of the testes, cuts off the tumour’s supply of testosterone. This…

Daniel Greysolon, Sieur DuLhut was a French soldier and explorer who was largely responsible for establishing French control over the country north and west of Lake Superior. The city of Duluth, Minn., was named for him. DuLhut became an ensign in the regiment at Lyon in 1657, and about 1665 he

Cornish literature: …1700 the linguist and naturalist Edward Lhuyd visited Cornwall to study the language. His Archæologia Britannica (1707) reproduces Boson’s folk tale “John of Chyannor” in a phonetic script, the only example of a secular prose story in historical Cornish. William Bodinar’s letter (1776), the last surviving text in historical Cornish,…

Lesotho: The Lesotho Highlands Water Project: Of primary importance to the country is the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), a large-scale water-transfer plan involving Lesotho and South Africa. Although similar plans had been discussed since the 1930s, the LHWP first took shape in the late 1980s and…

li, Chinese bronze, wide-mouthed cooking vessel that was supported by three legs shaped like pointed lobes. These legs were well articulated on the body of the vessel and formed an extension of the interior volume. A coarse pottery, li was made in the Neolithic Period (c. 3000–2000 bc); this shape

Li, indigenous people of Hainan Island, off the southern coast of China, and an official minority of China. The official name Li is applied to a number of different local groups, most of whom speak languages distantly related to the Tai language family. Until Chinese linguists created a romanized

lithium (Li), chemical element of Group 1 (Ia) in the periodic table, the alkali metal group, lightest of the solid elements. The metal itself—which is soft, white, and lustrous—and several of its alloys and compounds are produced on an industrial scale. atomic number 3 atomic weight 6.941 melting

li, Confucian concept often rendered as “ritual,” “proper conduct,” or “propriety.” Originally li denoted court rites performed to sustain social and cosmic order. Confucians, however, reinterpreted it to mean formal social roles and institutions that, in their view, the ancients had abstracted

Cameroon: Cultural life: The powerful masks of the Bali, which represent elephants’ heads, are used in ceremonies for the dead, and the statuettes of the Bamileke are carved in human and animal figures. The Tikar people are famous for beautifully decorated brass pipes, the Ngoutou people for two-faced masks, and the Bamum for…

Wenzong was the temple name (miaohao) of the 15th emperor (reigned 827–840) of the Tang dynasty (618–907) of China. He attempted unsuccessfully to free the court from the influence of the palace eunuchs, who had usurped much of the imperial power. His carefully laid plots against the eunuchs all

Li Ao was a Chinese scholar, poet, and official who helped reestablish Confucianism at a time when it was being severely challenged by Buddhism and Daoism. Li helped lay the groundwork for the later Neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty (960–1279), who systematically reformulated Confucian

Li Bai was a Chinese poet who rivaled Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet. Li Bai liked to regard himself as belonging to the imperial family, but he actually belonged to a less exalted family of the same surname. At age 24 he left home for a period of wandering, after which he married and

Ly Nam De was the founder of the first Vietnamese dynasty mentioned in extant historical records and Vietnam’s first great champion of independence. Ly Nam De led a successful revolt against the Chinese governor of Giao-chao province in 542 and captured the capital at Long Bien. Two years later he

Hong Kong literature: Some of the works of Li Bihua (English pen name: Lilian Lee) in the 1980s and 1990s can also be considered historical. The more renowned ones are Bawang bie ji (1985; Farewell My Concubine; film 1993), Qinyong (1989; “A Terra-cotta Warrior”), and Chuandao fangzi (1990; The Last Princess of Manchuria).

Li Bai was a Chinese poet who rivaled Du Fu for the title of China’s greatest poet. Li Bai liked to regard himself as belonging to the imperial family, but he actually belonged to a less exalted family of the same surname. At age 24 he left home for a period of wandering, after which he married and

Li Qingzhao was China’s greatest woman poet, whose work, though it survives only in fragments, continues to be as highly regarded as it was in her own day. Li Qingzhao was born into a literary family and produced well-regarded poetry while still a teenager. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, a

Li Chunfeng was a Chinese mathematician and astronomer. Li was the son of a widely educated state official. He was given a position in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau in 627, following his critique of the Wuyin calendar, which had been introduced in 619. Later he submitted a report concerning the

Li He was a brilliant Chinese poet who showed great promise until his untimely death at age 26. Literary legend describes Li He as a man of guicai (“devilish talent”) who composed his haunting verses by jotting down single lines on small slips of paper while on horseback, dropping the slips into an

jinbi shanshui: …Li Sixun and his son Li Zhaodao, who was said to have changed his father’s style, even surpassed it, and who spurred an interest in seascapes. This style was also employed by some conservative artists of later centuries such as the Song painters Zhao Boju and Zhao Bosu and the…

Chinese painting: Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties: Li Cheng, a follower of Jing Hao who lived a few years into the Song, was a scholar who defined the soft, billowing earthen formations of the northeastern Chinese terrain with “cloudlike” texture, interior layers of graded ink wash bounded by firmly brushed, scallop-edged contours.…

Taizong: The succession: …designation of his eldest son, Li Chengjian, as heir apparent, that son’s unacceptable behaviour eventually resulted in his banishment and death. Taizong was forced to give the succession to his ninth son, Li Zhi (the future Gaozong emperor), who was not his preferred heir.

Li Chi was an archaeologist chiefly responsible for establishing the historical authenticity of the semilegendary Shang dynasty of China. The exact dates of the Shang dynasty are uncertain; traditionally, they have been given as from c. 1766 to c. 1122 bce, but more recent archaeological evidence

Liji, one of the Five Classics (Wujing) of Chinese Confucian literature, the original text of which is said to have been compiled by the ancient sage Confucius (551–479 bc). During the 1st century bc the text was extensively reworked by Dai De (Elder Dai) and his cousin Dai Sheng (Younger Dai).

Chinese architecture: The Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties: …Hao and the state architect Li Jie were educated men. The latter is known today chiefly as the compiler of Yingzao fashi (“Building Standards”), which he presented to the throne in 1100. This illustrated work deals in encyclopaedic fashion with all branches of architecture: layout, construction, stonework, carpentry, bracketing, decoration,…

Li Zhizao was a Chinese mathematician, astronomer, and geographer whose translations of European scientific books greatly contributed to the spread of Western science in China. Originally from a military family, Li was made a jinshi (the highest scholar-official title in imperial China) in 1598. In

Wei Zhongxian was a eunuch who completely dominated the Chinese government between 1624 and 1627, ruthlessly exploiting the population and terrorizing the official class. He is usually considered by historians to have been the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history. Wei’s career began as a butler

Li Yu was a Chinese poet and the last ruler of the Nan (Southern) Tang dynasty (937–975). Li Yu succeeded his poet father, Li Jing, as ruler in 961. His country was invaded in 974 by Taizu, founder of the Song dynasty (960–1279). When Li Yu’s capital, Jinling, fell the next year, he surrendered and

Li Chunfeng was a Chinese mathematician and astronomer. Li was the son of a widely educated state official. He was given a position in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau in 627, following his critique of the Wuyin calendar, which had been introduced in 619. Later he submitted a report concerning the

Five Dynasties: …by one of its generals, Zhuangzong (personal name Li Cunxu), who established the Hou (Later) Tang dynasty in 923. Although Zhuangzong and his successors ruled relatively well for 13 years, the Hou Tang was finally terminated when one of its generals, Gaozu (personal name Shi Jingtang), overthrew his master with…

Ruizong was the temple name (miaohao) of the sixth emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He was placed on the throne by his mother, the future empress Wuhou, in 684, before she decided to set him aside and rule the country herself in 690. This was the first such usurpation in Chinese history.

Chinese literature: Prose: …Buddhist Temples in Luoyang”), and Li Daoyuan, author of Shuijingzhu (“Commentary on the Water Classic”). Although both of these works seem to have been planned to serve a practical, utilitarian purpose, they are magnificent records of contemporary developments and charming storehouses of accumulated folklore, written with great spontaneity and artistry.…

Li Dazhao was a cofounder of the Chinese Communist Party and mentor of Mao Zedong. After studying at Tianjin and at Waseda University in Tokyo, Li became an editor for Xinqingnian (“New Youth”), the principal journal of the new Western-oriented literary and cultural movements. In 1918 he was

China: The struggle for central authority: Wuzong and his minister, Li Deyu, managed to impose some restrictions on the eunuchs’ power, especially in the military.

Laozi was the first philosopher of Chinese Daoism and the alleged author of the Daodejing, a primary Daoist writing. Modern scholars discount the possibility that the Daodejing was written by only one person but readily acknowledge the influence of Daoism on the development of Buddhism. Laozi is

Ba Jin was a Chinese anarchist writer whose novels and short stories achieved widespread popularity in the 1930s and ’40s. Having been born to a wealthy gentry family, Li Yaotang received a traditional Confucian education as well as training in modern foreign languages and literatures. While in

Yan Yuan: …of his most eminent student, Li Gong (1659–1733), became the major works of a new philosophical movement known as the Yan-Li school. A short-lived society to study and disseminate its doctrines was formed in 1920 in Beijing. Yan’s major works were reprinted in the late 19th century as the Yan-Li…

Li Gonglin was one of the most lavishly praised Chinese connoisseurs and painters in a circle of scholar-officials during the Northern Song period. Li Gonglin was born into a scholarly home, received the jinshi (“advanced scholar”) degree in 1070, and followed the common career of going to the

Li He was a brilliant Chinese poet who showed great promise until his untimely death at age 26. Literary legend describes Li He as a man of guicai (“devilish talent”) who composed his haunting verses by jotting down single lines on small slips of paper while on horseback, dropping the slips into an

Li He was a brilliant Chinese poet who showed great promise until his untimely death at age 26. Literary legend describes Li He as a man of guicai (“devilish talent”) who composed his haunting verses by jotting down single lines on small slips of paper while on horseback, dropping the slips into an

Taoism: Revolutionary messianism: …a sage of western China, Li Hong, who had actually lived during the 1st century bce, became the favorite recurrent figure of later would-be messiahs. Such revolutionary religious movements, which included Taoist ideological elements, remained a persistent feature of medieval Chinese history. The last recorded Li Hong was executed in…

Li Hongzhang was a leading Chinese statesman of the 19th century, who made strenuous efforts to modernize his country. In 1870 he began a 25-year term as governor-general of the capital province, Zhili (Chihli; now Hebei), during which time he initiated projects in commerce and industry and, for

Li Hongzhi is the Chinese-born founder and leader of Falun Gong, a spiritual movement that won a wide following in China and elsewhere but was eventually condemned as a “heretical cult” by Chinese government officials. In the late 1980s and early ’90s, China saw a resurgence in the popularity of

Li Yu was a Chinese poet and the last ruler of the Nan (Southern) Tang dynasty (937–975). Li Yu succeeded his poet father, Li Jing, as ruler in 961. His country was invaded in 974 by Taizu, founder of the Song dynasty (960–1279). When Li Yu’s capital, Jinling, fell the next year, he surrendered and

Li Xiannian was a Chinese politician, one of the eight “revolutionary elders” and a leftist hard-liner who opposed economic reform. Li, a member of the Chinese Communist Party by 1927, was a veteran of the Long March (1934–35), having served as army captain and political commissar. He became

Li Xiucheng was a Chinese general and leader of the Taiping Rebellion, the giant religious-political uprising that occupied most of South China between 1850 and 1864. After 1859, when the Taipings were beset by internal dissension, poor leadership, and corruption, Li’s military and administrative

Lu Jiuyuan: …the Learning of Principle (lixue), often called the Cheng-Zhu school after its leading philosophers, Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi.

Li Hongzhang was a leading Chinese statesman of the 19th century, who made strenuous efforts to modernize his country. In 1870 he began a 25-year term as governor-general of the capital province, Zhili (Chihli; now Hebei), during which time he initiated projects in commerce and industry and, for

Li Chi was an archaeologist chiefly responsible for establishing the historical authenticity of the semilegendary Shang dynasty of China. The exact dates of the Shang dynasty are uncertain; traditionally, they have been given as from c. 1766 to c. 1122 bce, but more recent archaeological evidence

China: Early Tang (618–626): …army under the crown prince Jiancheng at the beginning of 623. The prolonged resistance in Hebei and the comparatively harsh Tang conquest of the region were the beginning of resistance and hostility in the northeast that continued to some degree throughout the Tang dynasty.

Chinese architecture: The Song (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynasties: …Hao and the state architect Li Jie were educated men. The latter is known today chiefly as the compiler of Yingzao fashi (“Building Standards”), which he presented to the throne in 1100. This illustrated work deals in encyclopaedic fashion with all branches of architecture: layout, construction, stonework, carpentry, bracketing, decoration,…

Chinese literature: 1927–37: …daring were Dai Wangshu and Li Jinfa, poets published in Xiandai (“Contemporary Age”), a Shanghai literary magazine. The latter wrote very sophisticated, if frequently baffling, poetry in the manner of the French Symbolists.

Li Ye was a Chinese mathematician and scholar-official who contributed to the solution of polynomial equations in one variable. Li passed the mandarin jinshi examination (the highest scholar-official title in imperial China) in prose literature at the late age of 38. He was appointed to the

Jiang Qing was the third wife of Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong and the most influential woman in the People’s Republic of China for a while until her downfall in 1976, after Mao’s death. As a member of the Gang of Four she was convicted in 1981 of “counter-revolutionary crimes” and

Wei Zhongxian was a eunuch who completely dominated the Chinese government between 1624 and 1627, ruthlessly exploiting the population and terrorizing the official class. He is usually considered by historians to have been the most powerful eunuch in Chinese history. Wei’s career began as a butler

Bruce Lee was an American-born film actor who was renowned for his martial arts prowess and who helped popularize martial arts movies in the 1970s. Lee was born in San Francisco, but he grew up in Hong Kong. He was introduced to the entertainment industry at an early age, as his father was an opera

Li Keran was a painter and art educator who was a prominent figure in 20th-century Chinese art. He developed a personal style of landscape painting that was based upon the emulation of both ancient and contemporary masters. Li showed a gift for painting, calligraphy, and music as a child. When he