Mufu Mountains, range at the border of Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangxi provinces, east-central China. The Mufu extend northeastward for more than 125 miles (200 km), from near Pingjiang in Hunan to the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley west of Jiujiang. The elevation of the range averages about 3,300

Mufulira, town, north-central Zambia. Mufulira is situated just southwest of the frontier with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is one of the country’s chief copper-mining centres; the rich local deposits have been exploited for many years. Smelting and refining of copper and an

Virunga Mountains, volcanic range north of Lake Kivu in east-central Africa, extending about 50 miles (80 km) along the borders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda. The range runs east-west, perpendicular to the rift valley in which lie Lakes Kivu and Edward. Of its eight

Central Asian arts: Sogdiana: …the great feudal castle of Mug survive. Among the objects excavated there was part of a wooden shield with the painted figure of a rider (State Hermitage Museum), which foreshadows a type commonly found in Islamic Persian book illumination. Mounted on a splendidly caparisoned horse, he wears a tunic of…

mug shot, photographic image taken by law enforcement officials during the booking process to be used to identify individuals accused of a crime. It usually appears as two portraits focused tightly on the sitter’s head, one in which the subject faces the camera and the other in profile. Police

saturniid moth: Major species: assama for muga silk; the Chinese oak silkworm, A. pernyi, for shantung silk; and the Indian moth, A. paphia and Japanese oak silk moth (A. yamamai) for tussah silk.

Nkole: …centralized state, headed by the mugabe (king). Hima were bound to the mugabe by an oath of fealty. Iru headmen were appointed over communities of their fellows, and through them Hima chiefs collected tribute.

Robert Mugabe: Succession controversy of Robert Mugabe: In 2014, however, Mugabe’s wife, Grace, launched a string of stinging verbal assaults on Mujuru’s character, culminating with Mujuru being dismissed from the vice presidency in December 2014 and expelled from the party months later. Emmerson Mnangagwa, another decorated liberation war hero with a prominent standing in ZANU-PF, replaced Mujuru…

Robert Mugabe was the first prime minister (1980–87) of the reconstituted state of Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia. A Black nationalist of Marxist persuasion, he eventually established one-party rule in his country, becoming executive president of Zimbabwe in 1987. He resigned on November 21, 2017,

Robert Mugabe was the first prime minister (1980–87) of the reconstituted state of Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia. A Black nationalist of Marxist persuasion, he eventually established one-party rule in his country, becoming executive president of Zimbabwe in 1987. He resigned on November 21, 2017,

Martyrs of Uganda: Mugagga, Mukasa Kiriwawanvu, Adolphus Mukasa Ludigo, Gyavira, and Kizito. The soldiers and officials Bruno Serunkuma, James Buzabaliawo, and Luke Banabakintu were martyred with them.

Azerbaijan: Cultural life: Mugams, vocal and instrumental compositions, are also widely known, the town of Shusha being particularly renowned for this art.

Azerbaijan: Economic regions: The Mugano-Salyan region, lying south of the Kura River and within the boundaries of the Mili and Mugan plains, specializes in cotton growing (under irrigation), producing about seven-tenths of the gross cotton output of Azerbaijan. Cotton-ginning plants are located in Bärdä, Salyan, and Äli-Bayramlı, all of…

mugger, (Crocodylus palustris), species of freshwater crocodile known for its broad head and snout, robust body (which gives it a superficial resemblance to the American alligator [Alligator mississippiensis]), and use of tools to attract prey. Muggers inhabit freshwater streams, ponds, and

mugger, (Crocodylus palustris), species of freshwater crocodile known for its broad head and snout, robust body (which gives it a superficial resemblance to the American alligator [Alligator mississippiensis]), and use of tools to attract prey. Muggers inhabit freshwater streams, ponds, and

Eadweard Muybridge was an English photographer important for his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion and in motion-picture projection. Edward James Muggeridge adopted the name Eadweard Muybridge, believing it to be the original Anglo-Saxon form of his name. He immigrated to the United

Malcolm Muggeridge was a British journalist and social critic. A lecturer in Cairo in the late 1920s, he worked for newspapers in the 1930s before serving in British intelligence during World War II. He then resumed his journalistic career, including a stint as editor of Punch (1953–57). An

Malcolm Muggeridge was a British journalist and social critic. A lecturer in Cairo in the late 1920s, he worked for newspapers in the 1930s before serving in British intelligence during World War II. He then resumed his journalistic career, including a stint as editor of Punch (1953–57). An

muggins, domino game similar to the regular drawing game except for the rule that if a player can play a piece that makes the sum of the open-end pips on the layout a multiple of five, he scores that number. Each player takes five pieces. If the leader poses (places) either 5-5 (double-five), 6-4,

cribbage: The play and the showing: …opponent may call out, “Muggins,” and score for himself any points overlooked.

Lodowick Muggleton was an English Puritan religious leader and anti-Trinitarian heretic whose followers, known as Muggletonians, believed he was a prophet. After claiming to have had spiritual revelations, beginning in 1651, Muggleton and his cousin John Reeve announced themselves as the two

rangoli, intricate traditional floor art that women in India design at the thresholds of their homes’ front doors, in their homes for puja (worship), and, often in more-resplendent forms, for festivals. Across India the designs have different names and styles, and women employ various materials to

Ur, important city of ancient southern Mesopotamia (Sumer), situated about 140 miles (225 km) southeast of the site of Babylon and about 10 miles (16 km) west of the present bed of the Euphrates River. In antiquity the river ran much closer to the city; the change in its course has left the ruins

Mughal architecture, building style that flourished in northern and central India under the patronage of the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th to the late 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India. Under the patronage of the Mughal emperors,

Mughal carpet, any of the handwoven floor coverings made in India in the 16th and 17th centuries for the Mughal emperors and their courts. Aside from patterns in the Persian manner, a series of distinctively Indian designs were developed, including scenic and landscape carpets; animal carpets with

Mughal dynasty, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughal dynasty was notable for its

Mughal dynasty, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughal dynasty was notable for its

Mughal glass, type of glass made in India during the Mughal period (1556–1707). Because imported Persian craftsmen were patronized by the Mughal court, Mughal glass of the 17th and 18th centuries shows an obvious indebtedness to Persian influences. Floral arabesques and sprays and, to a lesser

Mughal painting, style of painting, confined mainly to book illustration and the production of individual miniatures, that evolved in India during the reigns of the Mughal emperors (16th–18th century). In its initial phases it showed some indebtedness to the Ṣafavid school of Persian painting but

Dilip Kumar: Critical and commercial success: In the blockbuster Mughal-e-Azam (1960; “The Grand Mughal”), set in the 16th century, Kumar played crown prince Salim, son of the great Mughal emperor Akbar. His other memorable films include Bimal Roy’s Madhumati (1958) and Nitin Bose’s Gunga Jumna (1961). He played the dual role of identical twins…

Kungurian Stage: In the Mughalzhar Hills (Kazakhstan) and southern Ural mountain regions (Russia), Kungurian deposits are primarily terrigenous (formed by erosion), consisting of red beds and lagoonal sediment types. Many different kinds of shallow marginal marine, evaporitic, and nonmarine strata were deposited here as lateral sedimentary facies to one…

Arabic literature: Modern Arabic drama: Mughāmarat raʾs al-mamlūk Jābir (1971; “The Adventure of Mamlūk Jābir’s Head”) and Al-Malik huwa al-malik (1977; “The King’s the King”) continued his ongoing experiments with theatre dynamics through what he termed masraḥ al-tasyīs (“theatre of politicization”). Because Wannūs was such a crucially important figure, other…

Imad Mughniyeh was a Lebanese militant who served as a senior official in the Lebanese militia group Hezbollah. He was believed to have orchestrated a campaign of suicide bombings, hijackings, and kidnappings that spanned more than two decades. Little is known of Mughniyeh’s early life. He joined

Mughal dynasty, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughal dynasty was notable for its

history of Central Asia: Mongol rule: …Chagataid khanate was known as Mughulistān (literally, “Land of the Mongols”) and its inhabitants, unflatteringly, as Jats (literally, “Robbers”).

miso: …of barley and soybeans is mugi miso. It is estimated that there are at least 1,000 varieties of miso, although only a few regularly figure in Japanese household cuisine. Many of these varieties have their basis in the kind of rice used: white rice yields white miso, and red rice…

Mu Gia Pass, mountain pass in the Annamese Cordillera (Chaîne Annamitique) between northern Vietnam and Laos, 55 miles (90 km) northwest of Dong Hoi, Vietnam. The pass lies 1,371 feet (418 m) above sea level and carries the road from Tan Ap in Vietnam to Muang Khammouan (formerly called Thakhek) in

mullet: The common, or striped, mullet (Mugil cephalus), cultivated in some areas because of its rapid growth rate, is a well-known species found worldwide. The red surmullet, also called red mullet, is an unrelated species of the goatfish family.

mullet, any of the abundant, commercially valuable schooling fishes of the family Mugilidae (order Perciformes). Mullets number fewer than 100 species and are found throughout tropical and temperate regions. They generally inhabit salt water or brackish water and frequent shallow, inshore areas,

fish: Annotated classification: Order Mugiliformes (mullets) Definition as for the Series. 1 family, Mugilidae, with about 17 genera and as many as 80 species. Coastal marine and brackish or freshwater; tropical and temperate seas. Series Percomorpha (perches and perchlike fishes)

fish: Annotated classification: Series Mugilomorpha Oral and branchial filter-feeding mechanism; intestines muscular and extremely long; lateral line absent or highly reduced; 2 dorsal fins, the 1st spinous; pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 rays; pelvic fin connected to postcleithrum via a ligament; ctenoid scales; 24 to 26 vertebrae.…

Muğla, city, southwestern Turkey. It is located on the edge of a small plain about 12 miles (20 km) north of the Gulf of Gökova. A favourite residence of the emirs of the 14th-century Turkmen Menteşe principality, it was annexed to the Ottoman Empire in 1425. It is a local market for the

pine: Major Eurasian pines: …the Scotch pine is the mugo pine (P. mugo), a recumbent bush or small tree, generally only a metre or two (3 to 6.5 feet) high, which often has long zigzag stems that root occasionally at the kneelike bends where they rest upon the ground. It abounds in the Bavarian…

Xiwangmu: Her popularity has obscured Mugong, her counterpart and husband, a prince who watches over males in Donghua (“East Flower”) paradise. Tradition describes the queen as a former mountain spirit transformed into a beautiful woman from a quasi-human with a leopard’s tail and tiger’s teeth. Her fairyland garden was filled…

China: The Qin state: …power until the time of Mugong (reigned 659–621 bce), who made Qin the main power in the western part of China. Although Qin attempted to obtain a foothold in the central heartland along the Huang He, it was blocked by the territories of Jin. Qin failed several times to enter…

Mugridge, fictional character, a brutish ship’s cook in the novel The Sea Wolf (1904) by Jack

mug shot, photographic image taken by law enforcement officials during the booking process to be used to identify individuals accused of a crime. It usually appears as two portraits focused tightly on the sitter’s head, one in which the subject faces the camera and the other in profile. Police

wormwood: Common mugwort, or wild wormwood (A. vulgaris), is often used to flavour beverages, including gruit ales, and as a culinary herb. The plant is also used medicinally for menstrual pain and as an herbal abortifacient of unknown safety and efficacy. Annual mugwort, also called sweet wormwood…

Mugwump, in U.S. politics, member of a reform-oriented faction of the Republican Party that refused to support the candidacy of James G. Blaine for the presidency in 1884. Instead, the Mugwumps supported the Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland. Their leaders included George William Curtis, E.L.

Mohican, Algonquian-speaking North American Indian tribe of what is now the upper Hudson River valley above the Catskill Mountains in New York state, U.S. Their name for themselves means “the people of the waters that are never still.” During the colonial period, they were known to the Dutch and

Khenifra: …end of the 19th century, Muha ū Hāmū al-Zaiyānī, the governor of the local Amazigh tribes appointed by the sultan, established a market at the site, later constructed the town of Khenifra, and subsequently brought the surrounding area under his subjection and declared himself independent of the sultan. Although French…

Hadhramaut, region in east-central Yemen, on the Gulf of Aden. The region comprises a hilly area near the coast and an inland valley occupied by a seasonal watercourse, the Wadi Ḥaḍramawt, that runs parallel to the coast before turning southeastward to reach the sea. In its lower reaches this

muhajir, Muslim person, usually Urdu-speaking, who either migrated during the partition of India in 1947 to territory that would become Pakistan or is descended from such migrants. Those who migrated were predominantly from Uttar Pradesh, the Delhi area, and Bihar and primarily settled in urban

Pakistan: Zia-ul-Haq: …and the formation of the Muhajir Qaumi Movement (MQM) in the mid-1980s was both a cause and a consequence of the violence that was directed against the immigrant community. The founding of the MQM and its increasingly militant posture aroused the native Sindhis as never before. The Sindhi complaint that…

Hijrah: The Qurʾān describes the muhājirūn as being of a higher status before God (9:20) and states,

al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufrā was an Arab general in the service of the Umayyad caliphate and an important participant in the political developments of his time. Al-Muhallab first served under the caliph Muʿāwiyah, campaigning in India and raiding the country between Kābul and Multān. Later he was

Kyrgyzstan: Cultural life: …written with Kazakh playwright Kaltay Muhamedjanov, discusses rather openly the moral compromises made under the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. This play created a sensation when it was first staged in Moscow in 1973 and later in English-language productions abroad.

Dānishmend dynasty: …in 1134, and his son Mehmed (Muḥammad) took the title instead.

Muhammad was the founder of Islam and the proclaimer of the Qurʾān. He is traditionally said to have been born in 570 in Mecca and to have died in 632 in Medina, where he had been forced to emigrate to with his adherents in 622. The Qurʾān yields little concrete biographical information about the

Tunisia: The growth of European influence: The next bey, Muḥammad (1855–59), tried to ignore Europe, but this was no longer possible. Continued civil disturbances and corruption prompted the British and French to force the bey to issue the Fundamental Pact (ʿAhd al-Amān; September 1857), a civil rights charter modeled on the Ottoman rescript of…

al-Mahdī was the creator of a vast Islamic state extending from the Red Sea to Central Africa and founder of a movement that remained influential in Sudan a century later. As a youth he moved from orthodox religious study to a mystical interpretation of Islam. In 1881 he proclaimed his divine

Zaydiyyah: …Ḥusayn, and a brother of Muḥammad al-Bāqir. At a time when the designation and role of the Shiʿi imam was being defined, the followers of Zayd contended that the imam should be the descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (see Ahl al-Bayt) who was most knowledgeable in religious learning. The followers…

western Africa: The jihad of Usman dan Fodio: …province arose a new leader, Muḥammad al-Kānemī, who asserted that the Fulani clerics did not have a unique right to interpret Muslim law for the government of humanity. Al-Kānemī was able to inspire a spirited national resistance, which by 1811 had turned the tide against the Fulani. By 1826 he…

Oman: Periodic civil unrest: …remained autonomous until 1954, when Muḥammad al-Khalīlī, who had ruled as imam since 1920, died. His weak successor, Ghālib, was influenced by his brother Ṭālib and by a prominent tribal leader, Sulaymān ibn Ḥimyār; the three set out to create an independent state, enlisting Saudi Arabia’s support against Sultan Saʿīd…

Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah is venerated by the Ithnā ʿAshariyyah, or Twelver sect, the main body of Shīʿite Muslims. It is believed that Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah has been concealed by God (a doctrine known as ghaybah, or occultation) and that he will reappear in time as the mahdī, a messianic

Tunisia: World War II: …Tunis, where the reigning bey, Muḥammad al-Munṣif (Moncef), formed a ministry of individuals who were sympathetic to Destour.

Tunisia: World War II: …Tunis, where the reigning bey, Muḥammad al-Munṣif (Moncef), formed a ministry of individuals who were sympathetic to Destour.

Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah is venerated by the Ithnā ʿAshariyyah, or Twelver sect, the main body of Shīʿite Muslims. It is believed that Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah has been concealed by God (a doctrine known as ghaybah, or occultation) and that he will reappear in time as the mahdī, a messianic

Morocco: The French protectorate (1912–56): …seen by the fact that Muḥammad al-Muqrī, the grand vizier when the protectorate was installed, held the same post when Morocco recovered its independence 44 years later; he was by then more than 100 years old. As in Tunisia, country districts were administered by contrôleurs civils, except in certain areas…

Afṭasid dynasty: …the energies of his son Muḥammad al-Muẓaffar (reigned 1045–60). Constant warfare weakened Badajoz sufficiently to allow the Christian king Ferdinand I of Castile and Leon to extort tribute from al-Muẓaffar and then to capture the frontier garrisons of Viseu and Lamego (1057). Ferdinand also took Coimbra and the surrounding area…

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa: …June 22 the Almohad caliph Muḥammad al-Nāṣir had moved to Jaén, then the mountainous area around Baeza, intending to cut off the Christians at the plain of Las Navas de Tolosa. Soon after their arrival on July 12, the Christians took Castroferral with hopes of then reaching the Muslim encampment…

Tunisia: The protectorate (1881–1956): …years later the aged bey, Muḥammad al-Nāṣir, requested that the program of the Destour be adopted or he would abdicate. In response, the resident general, Lucien Saint, surrounded the bey’s palace with troops, and the demand was withdrawn. Saint thus introduced restrictive measures, together with minor reforms, that pacified Tunisian…

Tunisia: The growth of European influence: … came during the reign of Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq (1859–82). Though sympathetic to the need for reforms, Muḥammad was too weak either to control his own government or to keep the European powers at bay. He did, in 1861, proclaim the first constitution (dustūr; also destour) in the Arabic-speaking world, but this…

Ḥanafī school: …Abū Yūsuf (died 798) and Muḥammad al-Shaybānī (749/750–805) and became the dominant system of Islamic administration for the ʿAbbāsids and Ottomans. Although the Ḥanafī school acknowledges the Qurʾān and the Hadith (narratives concerning the Prophet Muhammad’s life and sayings) as primary sources of law, it is noted for its

Wilfrid Sheed: …with Parents (1985), the biographies Muhammad Ali (1975) and Clare Boothe Luce (1982), the essay collections The Good Word & Other Words (1978) and Essays in Disguise (1990), and Baseball and Lesser Sports (1991). In 1995 Sheed published In Love with Daylight: A Memoir of Recovery, about his battle with

Ken Burns: Muhammad Ali, Leonardo, and The Central Park Five: …work of the literary giant; Muhammad Ali (2021), an in-depth look at the legendary boxer; and The U.S. and the Holocaust (2022), which explores how racism and anti-Semitism contributed to America’s slow response to the state-sponsored killing of Jews and others by Nazi Germany during World War II. After a…

Stephen Frears: … (2000) and the HBO film Muhammad Ali’s Greatest Fight (2013), a drama involving the legal battle over the boxer’s draft-dodging conviction during the Vietnam War. He later directed the biographical miniseries A Very English Scandal (2018), in which Hugh Grant played the disgraced British politician Jeremy Thorpe, who was accused…

Chaudhri Mohammad Ali was a Pakistani politician who was the fourth prime minister of Pakistan, serving for 13 months in 1955–56. After the partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947, Mohammad Ali played an important role in determining how the new Pakistani state would be

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Anatolia: Division and decline: …confusion the powerful Turkmen chieftain Muḥammad Beg Qarāĩānī seized Konya, established Turkish as the language of administration, and installed a puppet ruler (allegedly a member of the Seljuq family). These events prompted a Mongol counterattack to expel the Mamlūks and to replace Muʿīn al-Dīn Sulaymān Parvāna, who was himself condemned…

ʿUmar Tal: Early life and pilgrimage to Mecca.: Muhammad Bello, emir of Sokoto in Nigeria, offered him his daughter Maryam in marriage. Enriched by this princely alliance, ʿUmar had become an important personage when he reached Mecca about 1827. He visited the tomb of the Prophet in Medina, returned to Mecca, and then…

Muḥammad V was the sultan of Morocco (1927–57) who became a focal point of nationalist aspirations, secured Moroccan independence from French colonial rule, and then ruled as king from 1957 to 1961. Muḥammad was the third son of Sultan Mawlāy Yūsuf; when his father died in 1927, French authorities

Egypt: The French occupation and its consequences (1798–1805): …Bey al-Bardīsī (died 1806) and Muḥammad Bey al-Alfī (died 1807), former retainers of Murād, headed rival factions and had in any case to reckon with the British and Ottoman occupation forces. In March 1803 the British troops were evacuated in accordance with the Treaty of Amiens (March 27, 1802). But…

Alhambra: History: …1358, in the reigns of Ibn al-Aḥmar, founder of the Naṣrid dynasty, and his successors. The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to Yūsuf I (died 1354). After the expulsion of the Moors in 1492, much of the interior was effaced and the furniture was ruined or removed. Charles…

Spain: The independent emirate: His successors Muḥammad I (852–886), al-Mundhir (886–888), and ʿAbd Allāh (888–912) were confronted with a new problem, which threatened to do away with the power of the Umayyads—the muwallads. Having become more and more conscious of their power, they rose in revolt in the north of the…

Iran: The Seljuqs: …Malik-Shah II was succeeded by Muḥammad I (reigned 1105–18). The last “Great Seljuq” was Sanjar (1118–57), who had earlier been governor of Khorāsān.

Alhambra: History: …1358, in the reigns of Ibn al-Aḥmar, founder of the Naṣrid dynasty, and his successors. The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to Yūsuf I (died 1354). After the expulsion of the Moors in 1492, much of the interior was effaced and the furniture was ruined or removed. Charles…

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Alhambra: History: …1358, in the reigns of Ibn al-Aḥmar, founder of the Naṣrid dynasty, and his successors. The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed to Yūsuf I (died 1354). After the expulsion of the Moors in 1492, much of the interior was effaced and the furniture was ruined or removed. Charles…

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah was a Muslim religious figure who many thought was the legitimate caliph. He was a son of ʿAlī, the fourth caliph, but not by his wife, Fāṭimah, who was the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. By nature, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah was retiring and inclined to avoid partisan

Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah is venerated by the Ithnā ʿAshariyyah, or Twelver sect, the main body of Shīʿite Muslims. It is believed that Muḥammad al-Mahdī al-Ḥujjah has been concealed by God (a doctrine known as ghaybah, or occultation) and that he will reappear in time as the mahdī, a messianic

Ibn al-Bawwāb: …in calligraphy was inspired by Muḥammad ibn Asad and was developed under Muḥammad ibn Samsamānī, both of whom were students of Ibn Muqlah. Altogether, Ibn al-Bawwāb reputedly produced 64 copies of the Qurʾān by hand. One of the most beautiful in the rayḥānī script is in the Laleli Mosque in…

history of Arabia: The Mamluks: Sharif Muḥammad ibn Barakāt (ruled 1425–53), however, received one-quarter of the value of all wrecked ships, one-quarter of all gifts arriving from abroad for the Meccans, and one-tenth of all imported goods. About half his income was distributed among the leading sharifian families.

Islamic arts: Shadow plays (Karagöz): A physician, Muḥammad ibn Dāniyāl, wrote three shadow plays that have survived. They were performed in the 13th century and display humour and satire and the lampooning of matchmaking and marriage. These plays also introduce a parade of popular contemporary characters, many of whom earn their living…

Muḥammad ibn Falāḥ was a Muslim theologian who founded the extremist Mushaʿshaʿ sect of Shīʿism. Muḥammad ibn Falāḥ was reputed to be descended from the seventh Shīʿite imam, Mūsā al-Kāẓim. He received a traditional Islāmic religious education in al-Ḥillah, a famous centre for Shīʿite studies. As a

Arabic literature: Panegyric: The Andalusian poet Ibn Hāniʾ undoubtedly enraged the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad when he referred to the capture of Cairo by the Fāṭimid dynasty:

Spain: The Almohads: …two emirs were quite divergent: Muḥammad ibn Hūd (1228–38) emphasized resistance on the part of the Muslims against the Christians who, led by Ferdinand III, were occupying the Guadalquivir valley; by contrast, Muḥammad I ibn al-Aḥmar (ruled in Granada 1238–73) acknowledged himself to be a vassal of the king of…

Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal: Life: …Ibn Ḥanbal and another theologian, Muḥammad ibn Nūḥ, who had also refused to recant, were cited to appear for trial before the caliph al-Maʾmūn, who was in Tarsus (now in Turkey) at the time. They were sent off in chains from Baghdad, but, shortly after beginning their journey, the caliph…

Sālimīyah: …after one of his disciples, Muḥammad ibn Sālim (d. ad 909). Even though the Sālimīyah were not a Ṣūfī (mystic) group in the strict sense of the word, they utilized many Ṣūfī terms and ideas in their doctrines.