Mohammed bin Salman is the de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, known for his aggressive foreign policy, ambitious economic vision, and controversial social reforms. He formally serves as crown prince (2017– ) and prime minister (2022– ) and has previously served as minister of defense (2015–22). He is

Ibn al-Bawwāb: …Asad and was developed under Muḥammad ibn Samsamānī, both of whom were students of Ibn Muqlah. Altogether, Ibn al-Bawwāb reputedly produced 64 copies of the Qurʾān by hand. One of the most beautiful in the rayḥānī script is in the Laleli Mosque in Istanbul, a gift of the Ottoman Sultan…

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: …settled in Al-Dirʿiyyah, capital of Muhammad ibn Saud, a ruler of the Najd (now in Saudi Arabia) and the progenitor of the Saud dynasty.

Saudi Arabia: Ibn Saud and the third Saudi state: …Saud defeated the forces of Muḥammad ibn Ṭalāl, the last Rashīdī emir, and annexed the whole of northern Arabia, occupying Al-Jawf and Wadi Al-Sirḥān in the following year. Kuwait experienced border raids and a Saudi blockade over payment of customs duties. Meanwhile, Faisal I and Abdullah I, the sons of…

Qatar: Early history and British protectorate: …signed a separate treaty with Mohammed ibn Thani in 1868, setting the course both for Qatar’s future independence and for the rule of the Thani dynasty, who until the treaty were only one among several important families on the peninsula.

Abū al-Misk Kāfūr: …founder of the Ikshīdid dynasty, Muḥammad ibn Ṭughj. Muḥammad recognized Kāfūr’s talent, made him tutor to his children, and promoted him to an officer. Kāfūr showed outstanding military abilities in the campaigns he conducted in Syria and the Hejaz. On his deathbed Muḥammad appointed Kāfūr guardian of one of his…

Muḥammad ibn Tughluq was the second sultan of the Tughluq dynasty (reigned 1325–51), who briefly extended the rule of the Delhi sultanate of northern India over most of the subcontinent. As a result of misguided administrative actions and unexampled severity toward his opponents, he eventually lost

al-ḥudūd: …manifest in the person of Muḥammad ibn Wahb al-Qurashī. The fourth successive principle is the Preceder (as-Sābiq, or Right Wing [al-Janāḥ al-Ayman]), embodied in Salāmah ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb as-Sāmirrī; and the fifth is the Succeeder (at-Tālī, or Left Wing [al-Janāḥ al-Aysar]), personified by al-Muqtanā Bahāʾ ad-Dīn. Each of these principles,…

Mohamed bin Zayed is the president of the United Arab Emirates (2022– ) and emir (2022– ) of Abu Dhabi, a constituent emirate of the United Arab Emirates. As crown prince (2004–22) of Abu Dhabi, he became the emirate’s foremost policy maker after his brother Khalifa, then emir of Abu Dhabi,

Ziyādid Dynasty: The first Ziyādid, Muḥammad ibn Ziyād, firmly established himself along the Yemeni coast (Tihāmah) with the support of a Khorāsānian army and cavalry; he was also recognized by the tribal chiefs along the edges of the highlands. Ṣanʿāʾ in the interior, however, remained under ʿAbbāsid control, and, when…

Ibn Ṭufayl was a Moorish philosopher and physician who is known for his Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān (c. 1175; Eng. trans. by L.E. Goodman, Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓan by Ibn Ṭufayl, 1972), a philosophical romance in which he describes the self-education and gradual philosophical development of a man who passes the first

North Africa: Morocco under sharifian dynasties: …during the reign of Sultan Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh (1757–90) and continuing under Sultan Mawlāy Sulaymān (1792–1822), Morocco enjoyed a period of relative stability that was disturbed on a large scale only by conflicts between the ruling dynasty and tribes recognizing the authority of Sufi leaders. The economy of Morocco…

Hāshimīyah: …majority of the sect acknowledged Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī (died between 731 and 743) of the ʿAbbāsid family as imam.

al-Sanūsī was a North African Islamic theologian who founded a reformist Sufi movement, the Sanūsiyyah, which helped Libya win its independence in the 20th century. During his formative years in his native Tursh (now in Algeria), which was incorporated in the Ottoman Empire, al-Sanūsī observed the

Idris I was the first king of Libya when that country gained its independence in 1951. In 1902 Idris succeeded his father as head of the Sanūsiyyah, an Islamic tariqa, or brotherhood, centred in Cyrenaica. Because he was a minor, active leadership first passed to his cousin, Aḥmad al-Sharīf. Ruling

India: Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan: …who then set Dāʾūd’s brother Muḥammad II (reigned 1378–97) on the throne and blinded Dāʾūd’s son. These political difficulties enabled Vijayanagar to take away Goa and other territory along the western coast, but the rest of Muḥammad II’s reign was peaceful, and the sultan spent much of his time building…

al-Muʿtamid was the third and last member of the ʿAbbādid dynasty of Sevilla (Seville) and the epitome of the cultivated Muslim Spaniard of the Middle Ages—liberal, tolerant, and a patron of the arts. At age 13 al-Muʿtamid commanded a military expedition that had been sent against the city of

Granada: In 1306 Muḥammad III (ruled 1302–09), then in possession of Ceuta and Gibraltar, seemed to have succeeded, but a powerful coalition soon reduced him to the modest position of vassal of the king of Castile. After 1340, when the battle of Río Salado settled the question of…

India: Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān: …was vizier (chief minister) under Muḥammad III (reigned 1463–82). During Maḥmūd Gāwān’s ascendancy, the Bahmanī state achieved both its greatest size and greatest degree of centralization, and yet, partly because of the attempts at centralization and partly because of the continuing rivalry between the Deccanis and the newcomers, the period…

Tunisia: Domestic development: …ailing Nouira was replaced by Muhammad Mzali, who made efforts to restore dissidents to the party and by 1981 had granted amnesty to many who had been jailed for earlier disturbances. In addition, he persuaded Bourguiba to accept a multiparty system (although only one opposition party was actually legalized).

Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām was the Ghūrid conqueror of the north Indian plain; he was one of the founders of Muslim rule in India. Muʿizz al-Dīn’s elder brother, Ghiyāth al-Dīn, acquired power east of Herāt in the region of Ghūr (Ghowr, in present Afghanistan) about 1162. Muʿizz al-Dīn always

Charminar: …was built in 1591 by Muḥammad Qulī Quṭb Shah, the fifth king of the Quṭb Shāhī dynasty, reportedly as the first building in Hyderabad, his new capital. Over the years, it has become a signature monument to and an iconic symbol of the city’s heritage. According to one legend, the…

Charminar: …was built in 1591 by Muḥammad Qulī Quṭb Shah, the fifth king of the Quṭb Shāhī dynasty, reportedly as the first building in Hyderabad, his new capital. Over the years, it has become a signature monument to and an iconic symbol of the city’s heritage. According to one legend, the…

Sayyid dynasty: …in 1434, his two successors, Muḥammad Shah and ʿĀlam Shah, proved incapable. ʿĀlam Shah abandoned Delhi for Badaun in 1448, and three years later Bahlūl Lodī, already ruler of the Punjab, seized Delhi and inaugurated the Lodī, the last dynasty of the Delhi sultanate.

Muḥammad Shah was an ineffective, pleasure-seeking Mughal emperor of India from 1719 to 1748. Roshan Akhtar was the grandson of the emperor Bahādur Shah I (ruled 1707–12) and the son of Jahān Shah, Bahādur Shah’s youngest son. Jahān Shah was killed in 1712, early in the succession struggle

India: Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan: Muḥammad Shah I (reigned 1358–75), son and successor of Bahman Shah, began the struggle with Vijayanagar that was to outlast the Bahmanī sultanate and continue, as a many-sided conflict, into the 17th century. There were at least 10 wars during the period 1350–1500, most of…

Ismāʿīl I: Muḥammad Shaybānī, leader of the Uzbeks, was killed trying to escape after the battle, and Ismāʿīl had his skull made into a jewelled drinking goblet.

Ismāʿīl I: Muḥammad Shaybānī, leader of the Uzbeks, was killed trying to escape after the battle, and Ismāʿīl had his skull made into a jewelled drinking goblet.

Ismāʿīl I: Muḥammad Shaybānī, leader of the Uzbeks, was killed trying to escape after the battle, and Ismāʿīl had his skull made into a jewelled drinking goblet.

Malcolm X: Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam: He founded the Nation’s newspaper, Muhammad Speaks, which he printed in the basement of his home, and initiated the practice of requiring every male member of the Nation to sell an assigned number of newspapers on the street as a recruiting and fund-raising technique. He also articulated the Nation’s racial…

Subud: …an Indonesian, Muḥammad Subuh, called Bapak. A student of Ṣūfism (Islāmic mysticism) as a youth, Bapak had a powerful mystical experience in 1925, and in 1933 he claimed that the mission to found the Subud movement was revealed to him. The movement was restricted to Indonesia until the 1950s, when…

Iraq: The Seljuqs (1055–1152): …killed by the Seljuq sultan Muḥammad Tapar (1105–18), and the dynasty never regained its former importance. The Mazyadids were finally dispossessed by the Seljuqs in the second half of the 12th century, and their capital, Al-Ḥillah, was occupied by caliphal forces.

Muḥammad Tawfīq Pasha was the khedive of Egypt (1879–92) during the first phase of the British occupation. The eldest son of Khedive Ismāʿīl, Tawfīq was distinguished from other members of his family by having engaged in study in Egypt rather than in Europe. He subsequently assumed a variety of

Mehmed II was an Ottoman sultan from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. A great military leader, he captured Constantinople and conquered the territories in Anatolia and the Balkans that constituted the Ottoman Empire’s heartland for the next four centuries. Mehmed was the fourth son of Murad II

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Muḥammad I Askia was a West African statesman and military leader who usurped the throne of the Songhai empire (1493) and, in a series of conquests, greatly expanded the empire and strengthened it. He was overthrown by his son, Askia Mūsā, in 1528. Both Muḥammad’s place and date of birth are

Spain: Granada: During the reign of Muḥammad V (1354–59; 1362–91) Granada attained its greatest splendour; its ministers included some of the most learned men of the epoch, such as the polymath Abū ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Khaṭīb, the physician Abū Jaʿfar ibn Khātima, and the poet Abū ʿAbd Allāh ibn Zamraq. Important…

Muḥammad V was the sultan of Morocco (1927–57) who became a focal point of nationalist aspirations, secured Moroccan independence from French colonial rule, and then ruled as king from 1957 to 1961. Muḥammad was the third son of Sultan Mawlāy Yūsuf; when his father died in 1927, French authorities

Morocco: Education of Morocco: Its leading institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country’s largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, a public English-language university…

Muḥammad VI is the king of Morocco since 1999. Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan completed primary and secondary schooling at the Royal Palace College before entering the Mohammed V University in Rabat; there he received a bachelor’s degree in law in 1985 and, three years later, a master’s degree in public

Muḥammad XII was the last Naṣrid sultan of Granada, Spain. His reign (1482–92) was marked by incessant civil strife and the fall of Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella, the Roman Catholic rulers of Aragon and Castile. Instigated by his mother, a jealous wife, Boabdil rebelled against his father, the

Tok Kenali was a Malay theologian and teacher who became the archetype of the rural Malay religious teacher (alim), with a reputation that spread far beyond his native Kelantan to Sumatra, Java, and Cambodia. Muhammad Yusof, born into a poor peasant family, was taught the fundamentals of the

Deoband school: …was founded in 1867 by Muḥammad ʿĀbid Ḥusayn in the Sahāranpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The theological position of Deoband has always been heavily influenced by the 18th-century Muslim reformer Shāh Walī Allāh and the early 19th-century Indian Wahhābiyyah, giving it a very puritanical and orthodox outlook.

Robert Clive: First years in India: …was besieging his British-connected rival, Muḥammad ʿAlī, in the fortress of Trichinopoly (now Tiruchchirappalli). Clive offered to lead a diversion against Chanda’s base at Arcot. With 200 Europeans and 300 Indians, he seized Arcot on August 31 and then successfully withstood a 53-day siege (September 23–November 14) by Chanda’s son.…

Muḥammad ʿAlī was the pasha and viceroy of Egypt (1805–48), founder of the dynasty that ruled Egypt from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th. He encouraged the emergence of the modern Egyptian state. Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ethnic background is unknown, though he may have been an

Uzbekistan: The early Uzbeks: …ʿUmar Khan (reigned 1809–22) and Muḥammad ʿAlī Khan (also known as Madali Khan; reigned 1822–42) gave the Uzbek Ming dynasty and the Kokand khanate a reputation for high culture that joined with an expansionist foreign policy. At its height the khanate dominated many nearby Kazakh and Kyrgyz tribes and resisted…

Muḥammad ʿAlī was the pasha and viceroy of Egypt (1805–48), founder of the dynasty that ruled Egypt from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th. He encouraged the emergence of the modern Egyptian state. Muḥammad ʿAlī’s ethnic background is unknown, though he may have been an

Qarakhanid Dynasty: In 1041 Muḥammad ʿAyn ad-Dawlah (reigned 1041–52) took over the administration of the western branch of the family, centred at Bukhara. At the end of the 11th century, the Qarakhanids were forced to accept Seljuq suzerainty. With a decline in Seljuq power, the Qarakhanids in 1140 fell…

Somalia: Civil war: …Somali National Alliance (SNA) and Cali Mahdi Maxamed (Ali Mahdi Muhammad) of the Somali Salvation Alliance (SSA), tore the capital apart and battled with Siad’s regrouped clan militia, the Somali National Front, for control of the southern coast and hinterland. This brought war and devastation to the grain-producing region between…

Muḥammad VI is the king of Morocco since 1999. Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan completed primary and secondary schooling at the Royal Palace College before entering the Mohammed V University in Rabat; there he received a bachelor’s degree in law in 1985 and, three years later, a master’s degree in public

Elijah Muhammad was the leader of the black separatist religious movement known as the Nation of Islam (sometimes called Black Muslims) in the United States. The son of sharecroppers and former slaves, Muhammad moved to Detroit in 1923 where, around 1930, he became assistant minister to the founder

Aurangzeb was the emperor of the Mughal Empire from 1658 to 1707, the last of the great Mughals. Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, although his policies helped lead to its dissolution. Aurangzeb was the third son of the emperor Shah Jahān and Mumtaz Mahal (for whom the Taj

Warith Deen Mohammed was an American religious leader, son and successor of Elijah Muhammad as head of the Nation of Islam, which he reformed and moved toward inclusion within the worldwide Islamic community. The seventh son of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, Mohammed was marked

Wallace D. Fard was the Mecca-born founder of the Nation of Islam (sometimes called Black Muslim) movement in the United States. Fard immigrated to the United States sometime before 1930. In that year, he established in Detroit the Temple of Islām as well as the University of Islām, which was the

Warith Deen Mohammed was an American religious leader, son and successor of Elijah Muhammad as head of the Nation of Islam, which he reformed and moved toward inclusion within the worldwide Islamic community. The seventh son of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, Mohammed was marked

Yemen: Two Yemeni states: His successor, ʿAlī Nāṣir Muḥammad, instituted a far less dogmatic political and economic order. In January 1986 the various personal and ideological differences surfaced briefly in an episode of violent civil strife that left Ismāʿīl and many of his supporters dead, resulted in the exile of ʿAlī…

History of film: Iran: …Tree), and Mohammed Rasulollah (2015; Muhammad: The Messenger of God).

Muḥammadī was one of the leading court painters during the time (1548–97) that the Ṣafavid capital was Qazvīn. A native of western Iran, he was a son of the painter Sulṭān Muḥammad, who was one of his teachers. A master of line, Muḥammadī (so called after his great father) began to paint while

Muhammadiyah, socioreligious organization in Indonesia, established in 1912 at Yogyakarta, aimed at adapting Islam to modern Indonesian life. The organization was chiefly inspired by an Egyptian reform movement, led by Muḥammad ʿAbduh, that had tried to bring the Muslim faith into harmony with

Bahrain: Land: …the group are Nabī Ṣāliḥ, Al-Muḥammadiyyah (Umm al-Ṣabbān), Umm al-Naʿsān (linked by the King Fahd Causeway), and Jiddah. The second group consists of the Ḥawār Islands, which are situated near the coast of Qatar, about 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Bahrain Island; a dispute with Qatar over ownership of…

Jama’are: Traditionally founded in 1811 by Muhammadu Wabi I, a leader in the Fulani jihad (holy war) led by Usman dan Fodio, the emirate was not officially recognized until 1835, when Sambolei, the chief of the Jama’are Fulani, was rewarded with it for his aid against the Hausa rebels of Katsina…

Tippu Tib was the most famous late 19th-century Arab trader in central and eastern Africa. His ambitious plans for state building inevitably clashed with those of the sultan of Zanzibar and the Belgian king Leopold II. The ivory trade, however, apparently remained his chief interest, with his

Turkish literature: Forms and genres: The muhammes, a five-line poem, was generally reserved for a type of poetic imitation in which a second poet closed the poem by writing three lines that mimicked the style of the opening couplet, written by a first poet. The second poet might also insert three…

history of Central Asia: Division of the empire: …part, ruled by Bumin’s son Muhan (ruled 553–572), was centred on Mongolia. The seat of the western part, ruled by Bumin’s brother Ishtemi (553–573?), lay in Ektagh, an unidentified place, possibly in either the Ili or Chu river valley.

Penina O. Muhando is a Tanzanian playwright and scholar, one of the few female writers published in the Swahili language as of the late 20th century. Muhando studied education and theatre in Tanzania at the University of Dar es-Salaam, later joining the faculty of the department of theatre arts.

Ibn al-Bawwāb: …invented the cursive rayḥānī and muḥaqqaq scripts. He refined several of the calligraphic styles invented a century earlier by Ibn Muqlah, including the naskhī and tawqī scripts, and collected and preserved for his students numerous original manuscripts of that master.

Uttar Pradesh: Festivals and holidays: …mawlids, birthdays of holy figures; Muḥarram, commemorating the martyrdom of the hero al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿĀli; Ramadan, a month devoted to fasting; and the canonical festivals of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Buddha Purnima (also known as Wesak or Vesak), commemorating the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death; Mahavira Jayanti, marking the

Al-Muḥarraq: Al-Muḥarraq Island is the third largest of the Bahraini group; its area is 6.7 square miles (17 square km). Roughly horseshoe-shaped, it is indented by Muḥarraq Bay on the south. Bahrain International Airport lies just north of Al-Muḥarraq city. Until shortly before Bahraini independence (1971),…

Al-Muḥarraq, municipality in the state and emirate of Bahrain, on Al-Muḥarraq Island, the northernmost island of the Bahrain archipelago, in the Persian Gulf. It lies at the southwest tip of the island and is connected by a causeway, about 1.5 miles (2.5 km) long, to the capital city of Manama, on

Ottoman Empire: The 1875–78 crisis: By the Decree of Muharrem (December 1881) the Ottoman public debt was reduced from £191 million to £106 million, certain revenues were assigned to debt service, and a European-controlled organization, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA), was set up to collect the payments.

al-Muḥāsibī: The method he proposed was muḥāsabah, the anticipation of the Last Judgment through constant self-examination. This seems to have been an impediment to real mystical experiences; the ruthlessness of this psychological technique buried every attempt at ecstatic exaltation under an enormous inferiority complex.

al-Muḥāsibī was an eminent Muslim mystic (Ṣūfī) and theologian renowned for his psychological refinement of pietistic devotion and his role as a precursor of the doctrine of later Muslim orthodoxy. His main work was ar-Ri ʿāyah li-ḥūqūq Allah, in which he acknowledges asceticism to be valuable as

Fakhr ad-Dīn ar-Rāzī: …or “The Great Commentary”) and Muḥaṣṣal afkār al-mutaqaddimīn wa-al-mutaʾakhkhirīn (“Collection of the Opinions of Ancients and Moderns”).

Muhavura, extinct volcano at the easternmost end of the Virunga Mountains in east central Africa. It lies northeast of Lake Kivu on the border between Uganda and Rwanda. It is more than 13,500 ft high, and its crater contains a lake. The volcano forms part of the Virunga National Park, which is the

prophecy: The ancient Middle East: …key words for prophet are muḫḫum (“ecstatic,” “frenzied one”) and āpilum (“one who responds”). Both may be connected with the cult, but there are incidents indicating that the muḫḫum was not bound to the cultic setting but received his message in a direct revelation from his god. The āpilum usually…

India: The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India: …vizier, who now proclaimed Prince Muḥī al-Millat, a grandson of Kām Bakhsh, as emperor under the title of Shah Jahān III (November 1759); he was soon replaced by ʿĀlamgīr II’s son Shah ʿĀlam II. In one way or another, the Marathas played a role in all these accessions. Maratha power…

Abul Kalam Azad was an Islamic theologian who was one of the leaders of the Indian independence movement against British rule in the first half of the 20th century. He was highly respected throughout his life as a man of high moral integrity. He adopted the name Azad (“free”), to which the

Sebeș, town, Alba județ (county), west-central Romania. It lies in the valley of the Sebeș River, on a major Romanian highway. The site had Neolithic and Daco-Roman settlements before Sebeș was refounded in the 12th century by German settlers. Sebeș was an important town in medieval Transylvania.

Czechoslovak history: Religious tensions in Bohemia: …after the Habsburg victory at Mühlberg (April 1547), Ferdinand quickly moved against them. The high nobility and the knights suffered comparatively mild losses, but the royal boroughs virtually lost their political power and were subordinated more rigidly to the crown. Another target of the king’s wrath was the Unitas Fratrum,…

Germany: Constitutional conflicts in the 14th century: …and captured his rival at Mühldorf, but his triumph in Germany merely raised the curtain on a long and bitter dispute with the papacy.

Allentown: …area is the seat of Muhlenberg College (1848), Cedar Crest College (1867), and Lehigh Carbon Community College (1966). Just outside the city in Center Valley are DeSales University (1964) and the Lehigh Valley (formerly Allentown) campus of Pennsylvania State University (Penn State Lehigh Valley; 1912).

Muhlenberg Family, distinguished U.S. family long associated with the state of Pennsylvania and the Lutheran Church, whose members included prominent figures in education, the military, and government. Henry Melchior Mühlenberg (b. Sept. 6, 1711, Einbeck, Hanover—d. Oct. 7, 1787, Trappe, Pa.,

Muhlenberg Family: Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg (1818–1901), grandson of Gotthilf Henry Ernest, a Lutheran clergyman and educator, was instrumental in the establishment of several Pennsylvania colleges. He was also the first president of Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pa. (1867).

Muhlenberg Family: Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg (1750–1801), second son of Henry Melchior, a Lutheran minister, served as a member of the Continental Congress and first speaker of the national House of Representatives. His brother Gotthilf Henry Ernest Muhlenberg was, in addition to being a Lutheran minister, a…

Muhlenberg Family: His brother Gotthilf Henry Ernest Muhlenberg was, in addition to being a Lutheran minister, a botanist of some note. He was the first president (1787) of Franklin College, Lancaster, Pa.

Protestantism: North America: …that of Halle, represented by Henry Melchior Mühlenberg (1711–87). The victory belonged to Mühlenberg, who became the organizing genius and spiritual leader of the American community and was later called “The Patriarch of American Lutheranism.”

Muhlenberg Family: John Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg (1746–1807), eldest child of Henry Melchior, was a Lutheran minister and a brigadier general in the Continental (American revolutionary) Army. He commanded the infantry at the battle of Yorktown. A congressman for several terms, he was also a friend of Thomas…

Anne Ayres: …of that year she heard William Augustus Muhlenberg, an Episcopal clergyman, preach on “Jephtha’s Vow” at St. Paul’s College and determined upon a life of religious service. On All Saints’ Day, November 1, 1845, she was consecrated Sister Anne, a “sister of the Holy Communion,” by Muhlenberg.

muhly, (genus Muhlenbergia), genus of about 150 species of range grasses in the family Poaceae, native to North and South America. Some species are used for fodder. Bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri) is so palatable to browsing animals that it is rarely found where livestock has access to it.

muhly: Several species, including pink muhlygrass, or hairawn muhly (M. capillaris), are grown as garden ornamentals.

muhly: Bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri) is so palatable to browsing animals that it is rarely found where livestock has access to it. Several species, including pink muhlygrass, or hairawn muhly (M. capillaris), are grown as garden ornamentals.

children’s literature: War and beyond: Mention should be made of Fritz Mühlenweg, a veteran of the Sven Hedin expedition of 1928–32 to Inner Mongolia and the author of Grosser-Tiger und Kompass-Berg (1950; Eng. trans., Big Tiger and Christian, 1952). A long, richly coloured narrative of a journey made by two boys, Chinese and European, through…

Mühlhausen, city, Thuringia Land (state), central Germany. It lies on the Unstrut River, in the Thuringian Basin (Thüringer Becken), about 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Erfurt. Originally a Germanic village and later a Frankish settlement, it was first documented in 775. It was granted royal

Mühlhausen, city, Thuringia Land (state), central Germany. It lies on the Unstrut River, in the Thuringian Basin (Thüringer Becken), about 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Erfurt. Originally a Germanic village and later a Frankish settlement, it was first documented in 775. It was granted royal

muhly, (genus Muhlenbergia), genus of about 150 species of range grasses in the family Poaceae, native to North and South America. Some species are used for fodder. Bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri) is so palatable to browsing animals that it is rarely found where livestock has access to it.

Zanele Muholi identifies as a visual activist—rather than an artist—and is nonbinary, using they/them pronouns. Their work, primarily photography, seeks to make more visible the Black LGBTQIA+ community in South Africa, where discrimination has often repressed queer and trans stories. Muholi says

Zuhayr Muḥsin was a Palestinian nationalist who was a leader of the pro-Syrian guerrilla organization al-Ṣāʿiqah and head of the Military Department of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). A long-standing member of the Baʿth Party and a friend of Syrian leader Ḥāfiẓ al-Assad, Muḥsin worked

Lahu, peoples living in upland areas of Yunnan, China, eastern Myanmar (Burma), northern Thailand, northern Laos, and Vietnam who speak related dialects of Tibeto-Burman languages. Although there is no indigenous Lahu system of writing, three different romanized Lahu orthographies exist; two of

Aurangzeb: Reign of power: …that were vigorously enforced by muḥtasibs, or censors of morals. The Muslim confession of faith, for instance, was removed from all coins lest it be defiled by unbelievers, and courtiers were forbidden to salute in the Hindu fashion. In addition, Hindu idols, temples, and shrines were often destroyed.