K. Alex Müller was a Swiss physicist who, along with J. Georg Bednorz, was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery of superconductivity in certain substances at higher temperatures than had previously been thought attainable. Müller received his doctorate from the Swiss

K. Alex Müller was a Swiss physicist who, along with J. Georg Bednorz, was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery of superconductivity in certain substances at higher temperatures than had previously been thought attainable. Müller received his doctorate from the Swiss

Karl Otfried Müller was a German professor and scholar of classical Greek studies whose considerations of ancient Greece in a broad historical and cultural context began an important era in the development of Hellenic scholarship. Müller was a pupil of August Boeckh, founder of a famous school of

Lucas Cranach, the Elder was a leading painter of Saxony, and one of the most important and influential artists in 16th-century German art. Among his vast output of paintings and woodcuts, the most important are altarpieces, court portraits and portraits of the Protestant Reformers, and innumerable

German Christian: …September the German Christian candidate, Ludwig Müller, assumed leadership of the church as Reichsbischof (“Reich bishop”). The movement acceded to the Nazi definition of a Jew based on the religion of his or her grandparents and to the racist principles embodied in the Nürnberg Laws of 1935. Thus, many practicing…

Friedrich Müller was a German poet, dramatist, and painter who is best known for his slightly sentimental prose idylls on country life. After studying painting at Zweibrücken, Müller was appointed court painter at Mannheim (1777) but left the next year for Italy. He abandoned painting soon after

Max Müller was a German scholar of comparative language, religion, and mythology. Müller’s special areas of interest were Sanskrit philology and the religions of India. The son of Wilhelm Müller, a noted poet, Max Müller was educated in Sanskrit, the classical language of India, and other languages

Otto Müller was a German painter and printmaker who became a member of the Expressionist movement. He is especially known for his characteristic paintings of nudes and gypsy women. When, in 1910, he joined Die Brücke, a Dresden-based group of Expressionist artists, his work still displayed the

Paul Hermann Müller was a Swiss chemist who received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1948 for discovering the potent toxic effects on insects of DDT. With its chemical derivatives, DDT became the most widely used insecticide for more than 20 years and was a major factor in increased

Sir Ferdinand von Mueller was a German-born Australian botanist and explorer who was known for his studies of the plants of Australia. After an apprenticeship as pharmacist, Mueller began the study of botany at the University of Kiel. Soon after receiving his Ph.D., he left Germany for Adelaide,

Sophus Otto Müller was a Danish archaeologist who, during the late 19th century, discovered the first of the Neolithic battle-ax cultures in Denmark. Assistant (1878) and inspector (1885) at the Museum of National Antiquities, Copenhagen, Müller became codirector of the Danish prehistoric and

Wilhelm Müller was a German poet who was known both for his lyrics that helped to arouse sympathy for the Greeks in their struggle for independence from the Turks and for his verse cycles “Die schöne Müllerin” and “Die Winterreise,” which Franz Schubert set to music. After studying philology and

graphic design: The International Typographic Style: Josef Müller-Brockmann was a leading designer, educator, and writer who helped define this style. His poster, publication, and advertising designs are paradigms of the movement. In a long series of Zürich concert posters, Müller-Brockmann used colour, an arrangement of elemental geometric forms, and type to…

illusion: Visual perceptual illusions: The Müller-Lyer illusion is based on the Gestalt principles of convergence and divergence: the lines at the sides seem to lead the eye either inward or outward to create a false impression of length. The Poggendorff illusion depends on the steepness of the intersecting lines. As…

transplant: The uterus: Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome (MRKH; also called Müllerian agenesis), characterized by underdevelopment or absence of the vagina and uterus, occurs in about 1 in 4,500 girls at birth. Women with MRKH cannot carry a pregnancy, though those who have functioning ovaries may choose in vitro fertilization (IVF)…

human reproductive system: Development of the reproductive organs: …ducts, called the paramesonephric or müllerian ducts, persist, in females, to develop into the fallopian tubes, the uterus, and part of the vagina; in males they are largely suppressed. Differentiation also occurs in the primitive external genitalia, which in males become the penis and scrotum and in females the vulva…

Müllerian mimicry, a form of biological resemblance in which two or more unrelated noxious, or dangerous, organisms exhibit closely similar warning systems, such as the same pattern of bright colours. According to the widely accepted theory advanced in 1878 by the German naturalist Fritz Müller,

elephant bird: …taxonomies include three genera (Aepyornis, Mullerornis, and Vorombe), with the species V. titan being both the largest member of the family and the largest bird that ever lived.

Luxembourg: Relief and soils: …a great beech forest, the Müllerthal, as well as a sandstone area featuring an attractive ruiniform topography. The country’s eastern border with Germany is formed (successively from north to south) by the Our, Sûre, and Moselle rivers. The slopes of the Moselle River valley, carved in chalk and calcareous clay,…

mullet, any of the abundant, commercially valuable schooling fishes of the family Mugilidae (order Perciformes). Mullets number fewer than 100 species and are found throughout tropical and temperate regions. They generally inhabit salt water or brackish water and frequent shallow, inshore areas,

Alfred B. Mullett was a British-born American architect best known as the designer of the State, War, and Navy Building (1871–89; now the Old Executive Office Building) in Washington, D.C. Mullett’s family immigrated to the United States in 1845. He studied there and in Europe. From 1866 to 1874 he

Alfred B. Mullett was a British-born American architect best known as the designer of the State, War, and Navy Building (1871–89; now the Old Executive Office Building) in Washington, D.C. Mullett’s family immigrated to the United States in 1845. He studied there and in Europe. From 1866 to 1874 he

Alfred B. Mullett was a British-born American architect best known as the designer of the State, War, and Navy Building (1871–89; now the Old Executive Office Building) in Washington, D.C. Mullett’s family immigrated to the United States in 1845. He studied there and in Europe. From 1866 to 1874 he

goatfish, any of more than 60 species of elongated marine fishes of the family Mullidae (order Perciformes). Goatfishes are characterized by two well-separated dorsal fins and by a pair of long, sensory chin barbels. The barbels are used to find the small, bottom-living invertebrates on which the

Mulligan River, intermittent stream in east-central Australia. Rising in the Toko Range, Queensland, it flows southeast past Barrington Peak on the west. It widens into a dry salt bed with artesian wells on its route before merging with Eyre Creek near Muncoonie Lake salt beds. Upon crossing the

Carey Mulligan is a British actress who won critical acclaim and respect for her seemingly effortless ability to inhabit an eclectic variety of characters on screen and stage. Mulligan’s mother was a university lecturer and her father an executive in a hotel conglomerate. She spent part of her

Carey Mulligan is a British actress who won critical acclaim and respect for her seemingly effortless ability to inhabit an eclectic variety of characters on screen and stage. Mulligan’s mother was a university lecturer and her father an executive in a hotel conglomerate. She spent part of her

Gerry Mulligan was an American baritone saxophonist, arranger, and composer noted for his role in popularizing “cool” jazz—a delicate, dry, understated approach to jazz style. Mulligan showed strong musical instincts from his early youth. He played piano and wind instruments with a number of small

Gerry Mulligan was an American baritone saxophonist, arranger, and composer noted for his role in popularizing “cool” jazz—a delicate, dry, understated approach to jazz style. Mulligan showed strong musical instincts from his early youth. He played piano and wind instruments with a number of small

Robert Mulligan was an American director who was best known for To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). Although his films do not bear a personal stamp, he was noted for his craftsmanship and ability to elicit strong performances from his cast. After serving in the U.S. Marines during World War II, Mulligan

Robert Mulligan was an American director who was best known for To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). Although his films do not bear a personal stamp, he was noted for his craftsmanship and ability to elicit strong performances from his cast. After serving in the U.S. Marines during World War II, Mulligan

Robert Sanderson Mulliken was an American chemist and physicist who received the 1966 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for “fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules.” A graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mulliken worked, during World War I

Golden State Warriors: …Mitch Richmond, and small forward Chris Mullin. While Nelson’s teams were entertaining, they failed to advance past the second round in the playoffs over this period, and Nelson left the Warriors during the 1994–95 season. Golden State then entered a period that saw them post last- and second-to-last-place finishes in…

Golden State Warriors: …center Nate Thurmond, and guard-forward Jeff Mullins, only to lose on each occasion. Barry, who had led the league in scoring in 1966–67, became one the first stars to leave the NBA for the upstart American Basketball Association, when he signed with the Oakland Oaks the next year.

John Alden and Priscilla Alden: Priscilla Mullins went to America with her parents and younger brother. The other three members of her family died during the terrible first winter of the Plymouth Colony. Probably in 1623 she and John were married. They lived in Plymouth until about 1631, when they…

mullion, in architecture, a slender vertical division between adjacent lights or subdivisions in a window or between windows in a group. Mullions appear with the invention of tracery and are particularly characteristic of Gothic architecture and early Renaissance architecture in northern and

Kary Mullis was an American biochemist, cowinner of the 1993 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a simple technique that allows a specific stretch of DNA to be copied billions of times in a few hours. After receiving a doctorate in biochemistry from

Kary Mullis was an American biochemist, cowinner of the 1993 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a simple technique that allows a specific stretch of DNA to be copied billions of times in a few hours. After receiving a doctorate in biochemistry from

mullite, any of a type of rare mineral consisting of aluminum silicate (3Al2O3·2SiO2). It is formed upon firing aluminosilicate raw materials and is the most important constituent of ceramic whiteware, porcelains, and high-temperature insulating and refractory materials. Compositions, such as

Adolf Müllner was a German playwright, one of the so-called fate dramatists, who wrote plays in which people perish as a consequence of past behaviour. After studying law at Leipzig, Müllner established himself as advocate at Weissenfels and made his debut as an author with the novel Der Incest,

Adolf Müllner was a German playwright, one of the so-called fate dramatists, who wrote plays in which people perish as a consequence of past behaviour. After studying law at Leipzig, Müllner established himself as advocate at Weissenfels and made his debut as an author with the novel Der Incest,

goatfish: …known of these is the red surmullet, or red mullet (Mullus barbatus), of the Mediterranean, which was one of the most highly prized food fishes of the ancient Romans. Very similar is another European species, M. surmuletus.

goatfish: …similar is another European species, M. surmuletus.

Sikh Wars: … began with the revolt of Mulraj, governor of Multan, in April 1848 and became a national revolt when the Sikh army joined the rebels on September 14. Indecisive battles characterized by great ferocity and bad generalship were fought at Ramnagar (November 22) and at Chilianwala (Jan. 13, 1849) before the…

William Mulready was a genre painter best known for his scenes of rural life and anecdotal genre. Mulready entered the Royal Academy schools in London in 1800. In 1808 he began to gain a reputation for his still-life and “cottage” subjects, and in 1816 he was made a member of the Royal Academy.

Brian Mulroney was a Canadian politician who served as leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada (1983–93) and was prime minister of Canada from 1984 to 1993. Mulroney championed closer cooperation between Canada and the United States, played a pivotal role in the formation of the

Brian Mulroney was a Canadian politician who served as leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada (1983–93) and was prime minister of Canada from 1984 to 1993. Mulroney championed closer cooperation between Canada and the United States, played a pivotal role in the formation of the

mead: …although the Roman mulsum, or mulse, was not mead but wine sweetened with honey. In Celtic and Anglo-Saxon literature, such as the writings of Taliesin and in the Mabinogion and Beowulf, mead is the drink of kings and thanes. Chaucer’s Miller drank mead, but by the 14th century spiced ale…

mead: …although the Roman mulsum, or mulse, was not mead but wine sweetened with honey. In Celtic and Anglo-Saxon literature, such as the writings of Taliesin and in the Mabinogion and Beowulf, mead is the drink of kings and thanes. Chaucer’s Miller drank mead, but by the 14th century spiced ale…

Multan, city, south-central Punjab province, east-central Pakistan. It is built on a mound just east of the Chenab River. The chief seat of the Malavas, an ancient people who ruled the region in the 4th century bce, Multan was subdued by Alexander the Great in 326 bce and was brought under Umayyad

al-Ḥalabī: …major work, however, was the Multaqa al-abḥur (1517), a handbook of Ḥanafī jurisprudence based on the works of four earlier jurists. It was immediately successful, and many commentaries on it were written. The work, translated later into Ottoman Turkish, became a major source for Ḥanafī doctrines and their applications in…

Multatuli was one of the Netherlands’ greatest writers, whose radical ideas and freshness of style eclipsed the mediocre, self-satisfied Dutch literature of the mid-19th century. In 1838 Multatuli went to the Dutch East Indies, where he held a number of government posts until 1856, when he resigned

iltizām: …to the highest bidder (mültazim, plural mültezim or mültazims), who then collected the state taxes and made payments in fixed installments, keeping a part of the tax revenue for his own use. The iltizām system included the farming of land taxes, the farming of urban taxes, the production of…

iltizām: …to the highest bidder (mültazim, plural mültezim or mültazims), who then collected the state taxes and made payments in fixed installments, keeping a part of the tax revenue for his own use. The iltizām system included the farming of land taxes, the farming of urban taxes, the production of…

electronic game: Personal computer games: MUD (Multi User Dungeon), developed in 1979 by Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle at the University of Essex, England, combined interactive fiction, role playing, programming, and dial-up modem access to a shared computer. It inspired dozens of popular multiplayer games, known collectively as MUDs, that…

artiodactyl: Digestive system: …advanced ruminants, the much enlarged stomach consists of four parts. These include the large rumen (or paunch), the reticulum, the omasum (psalterium or manyplies)—which are all believed to be derived from the esophagus—and the abomasum (or reed), which corresponds to the stomach of other mammals. The omasum is almost absent…

blood: Blood cells: A master colony-stimulating factor (multi-CSF), also called interleukin-3, stimulates the most ancestral hematopoietic stem cell. Further differentiation of this stem cell into specialized descendants requires particular kinds of CSFs; for example, the CSF erythropoietin is needed for the maturation of red cells, and granulocyte CSF controls…

tuberculosis: Treatment: …the development and spread of MDR TB, the World Health Organization began encouraging countries to implement a compliance program called directly observed therapy (DOT). Instead of taking daily medication on their own, patients are directly observed by a clinician or responsible family member while taking larger doses twice a week.…

Jodrell Bank Observatory: …of a seven-telescope array, the Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network (MERLIN), which uses microwave links to connect the individual telescopes into a radio interferometer 217 kilometres (135 miles) in diameter.

dementia: …of dementia, called multi-infarct, or vascular, dementia, results from a series of small strokes that progressively destroy the brain. Dementia can also be caused by Huntington disease, syphilis, multiple sclerosis, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and some types of encephalitis

multimessenger astronomy, the use of multiple “messengers”—light, cosmic rays, neutrinos, and gravitational waves—to study astronomical objects such as supernovae and merging neutron star binaries. Each of these messengers reveals a different aspect of the objects that emit them. Cosmic rays and

Microsoft Word, word-processor software launched in 1983 by the Microsoft Corporation. Software developers Richard Brodie and Charles Simonyi joined the Microsoft team in 1981, and in 1983 they released Multi-Tool Word for computers that ran a version of the UNIX operating system (OS). Later that

videoconferencing: Modern developments: Another solution, called “multicasting,” operates in a slightly different manner; instead of employing a videoconferencing server, the process can link one user to another directly (such as from personal computer to personal computer).

multicellular organism, an organism composed of many cells, which are to varying degrees integrated and independent. The development of multicellular organisms is accompanied by cellular specialization and division of labour; cells become efficient in one process and are dependent upon other cells

borane: Structure and bonding of boranes: …the bonding in boranes involves multicentre bonding, in which three or more atoms share a pair of bonding electrons, boranes are commonly called electron-deficient substances. Diborane(6) has the following structure:

radiation measurement: Spectroscopy systems: …sending the pulses to a multichannel analyzer, where the pulses are electronically sorted out according to their amplitude to produce the type of spectrum illustrated in Figure 3. Ideally, every incoming pulse is sorted into one of the channels of the multichannel analyzer. Therefore, when the measurement is completed, the…

marketing: Management of channel systems: Finally, multichannel conflict occurs when a manufacturer has established two or more channels that compete against each other in selling to the same market. For example, a major tire manufacturer may begin selling its tires through mass merchandisers, much to the dismay of its independent tire…

materials science: Electric connections: …several chips into a single multichip module, in which the chips are connected on a shared substrate by various conducting materials (such as metalized film), the speed of information flow can be increased, thus improving the assembly’s performance. Ideally, all the chips in a single module would be fabricated simultaneously…

collinearity, in statistics, correlation between predictor variables (or independent variables), such that they express a linear relationship in a regression model. When predictor variables in the same regression model are correlated, they cannot independently predict the value of the dependent

distilled spirit: The rectification still: The multicolumn rectifying system usually consists of three to five columns. The first column is always a preliminary separation column called the beer still, or analyzer. It usually consists of a series of metal plates with holes punched in them and baffles to control the liquid…

computer: Time-sharing from Project MAC to UNIX: …and the result was the Multics operating system running on the GE 645 computer. GE 645 exemplified the time-shared computer in 1965, and Multics was the model of a time-sharing operating system, built to be up seven days a week, 24 hours a day.

multiculturalism, the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly those of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgment of their differences within a dominant political culture. That acknowledgment can take the forms of recognition of contributions to the cultural life of the

urogenital malformation: Multicystic dysplastic kidney, a common type of kidney malformation in newborns in which cysts of varying size enlarge one or both kidneys. Though not necessarily fatal, the condition causes a decrease in the amount of functional kidney tissue, which creates a tendency toward infection.

coordination compound: Ligands and chelates: Because a polydentate ligand is joined to the metal atom in more than one place, the resulting complex is said to be cyclic—i.e., to contain a ring of atoms. Coordination compounds containing polydentate ligands are called chelates (from Greek chele, “claw”), and their formation is termed chelation.…

Mali: 2012 coup and warfare in the north: … approved the creation of the Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA), which took over operations from AFISMA in July 2013. MINUSMA troops then worked alongside the remaining French forces to maintain security.

Central African Republic: Security: …new operation, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (Mission Multidimensionnelle Intégrée des Nations Unies pour la Stabilisation en République Centrafricaine; MINUSCA), subsumed MISCA and previous UN missions; it became operational in September 2014. Operation Sangaris ended its mission and left the country in 2016.…

projective geometry: Projective conic sections: …curves and surfaces in higher-dimensional spaces can be unified through projections. For example, Isaac Newton (1643–1727) showed that all plane curves defined by polynomials in x and y of degree 3 (the highest power of the variables is 3) can be obtained as projective images of just five types…

tomography: …more complicated technique known as multidirectional tomography produces an even sharper image by moving the film and X-ray tube in a circular or elliptical pattern. As long as both tube and film move in synchrony, a clear image of objects in the focal plane can be produced. These tomographic approaches…

museum: General museums: General museums hold collections in more than one subject and are therefore sometimes known as multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary museums. Many were founded in the 18th, 19th, or early 20th century. Most originated in earlier private collections and reflected the encyclopaedic spirit of the…

leprosy: Therapy: …can be killed rapidly, and multidrug therapy—the use of two or more antileprosy drugs in combination—prevents the development of drug-resistant strains. Indeed, multidrug therapy—a practice widely adopted in the treatment of tuberculosis and AIDS—was first proposed after scientists observed that some cases of leprosy were becoming resistant to sulfones, the…

tuberculosis: Treatment: …the development and spread of MDR TB, the World Health Organization began encouraging countries to implement a compliance program called directly observed therapy (DOT). Instead of taking daily medication on their own, patients are directly observed by a clinician or responsible family member while taking larger doses twice a week.…

electrochemical reaction: Multielectrode systems: So far, systems have been considered in which a single electrode process takes place. In principle, at any electrode potential all species present in the system fall into two categories: those that are stable, and those that undergo oxidation or reduction. The stable…

pension: In plans known as multiemployer plans, various employers contribute to one central trust fund administered by a joint board of trustees. Such plans are particularly common in the Netherlands and France and in industries in the United States.

adoption: Another federal law, the 1994 Multiethnic Placement Act, prevented child-welfare agencies that receive federal assistance from denying or delaying an application for adoption solely on the basis of the race or national origin of the adoptive parents or child.

productivity: …type of ratio is called “total factor” or “multifactor” productivity, and changes in it over time reflect the net saving of inputs per unit of output and thus increases in productive efficiency. It is sometimes also called the residual, since it reflects that portion of the growth of output that…

human genetic disease: Diseases caused by multifactorial inheritance: Genetic disorders that are multifactorial in origin represent probably the single largest class of inherited disorders affecting the human population. By definition, these disorders involve the influence of multiple genes, generally acting in concert with environmental factors. Such common conditions as cancer, heart…

variation: Variations are classified either as continuous, or quantitative (smoothly grading between two extremes, with the majority of individuals at the centre, as height varies in human populations); or as discontinuous, or qualitative (composed of well-defined classes, as blood groups vary in humans). A discontinuous variation with several classes, none of…

economic development: The role of the international economy: …developing countries) including especially the Multifibre Arrangement under which imports of textiles and clothing into developed countries are greatly restricted; and tariff escalation, or higher rates of duties on processed products as compared with raw materials, which discourages the growth of processing industries in the developing countries. The removal of…

history of flight: Avionics, passenger support, and safety: …in cockpit management is the Multifunction Electronic Display Subsystem (MEDS), which allows pilots to call up desired information on a liquid crystal display (LCD). Besides being more easily understood by a computer-literate generation of pilots, MEDS is less expensive to maintain and more easily updated than conventional instrumentation.

special district: Multifunction special districts govern parks and recreation, housing and community development, industrial development and mortgage credit, natural resources and water supply, and sewerage and water supply, among others.

number game: Number patterns and curiosities: …type of number pleasantry concerns multigrades; i.e., identities between the sums of two sets of numbers and the sums of their squares or higher powers—e.g.,

graph theory: …the graph is called a multigraph. A graph without loops and with at most one edge between any two vertices is called a simple graph. Unless stated otherwise, graph is assumed to refer to a simple graph. When each vertex is connected by an edge to every other vertex, the…

African Development Bank: …in 1966, and dedicated to financing the economic and social development of its African member countries. Its membership includes 53 African states and 24 non-African countries. ADB headquarters are in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.

commodity trade: International cooperation: In the multilateral contract system, consumers and producers undertake to buy or sell a specified quantity of the commodity at agreed minimum and maximum prices, or at a price within the agreed range.

embargo: …for humanitarian purposes, and most multilateral embargoes include escape clauses that specify a limited set of conditions under which exporters may be exempt from their prohibitions.

malaria: Malaria through history: …aid programs, such as the Multilateral Initiative on Malaria and the Malaria Vaccine Initiative, were established to support the fight against malaria. Some of these programs aim to fund a broad range of malaria research, whereas others aim to fund ongoing malaria control efforts in endemic areas. These control efforts,…

World Bank: Origins: …International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The IBRD provides loans at market rates of interest to middle-income developing countries and creditworthy lower-income countries. The IDA, founded in 1960, provides interest-free long-term loans, technical assistance, and policy…

20th-century international relations: France’s independent course: …inviting it to join a multilateral nuclear force (MLF) under NATO command. First suggested in December 1960, the MLF was pushed by Kennedy and Johnson, but de Gaulle responded with contempt, while Adenauer feared to join lest he damage West German relations with France. The idea of an MLF died…

international trade: Multilateral agreements after World War II: The conclusion of World War II spurred efforts to correct the problems stemming from protectionism, which had increased since 1871, and trade restrictions, which had been imposed between World Wars I and II. The resulting multilateral trade agreements and…

conflict of laws: Recognition and enforcement of judgments: …dealt with in bilateral or multilateral treaties (except in the United States, which is not party to any judgments-recognition treaty). National legal systems will ordinarily recognize a judgment rendered in a foreign country (sometimes on the condition of reciprocity), provided that the rendering court had jurisdiction (as measured by the…