South Korea: Cultural institutions: The National Museum of Korea maintains artifacts of Korean culture, including many national treasures, chiefly in the central museum in Seoul; there are branch museums in some one dozen cities across the country. Archaeological sites include the ancient burial mounds at Gyeongju, capital of the Silla…

National Museum of Modern Art, museum in Tokyo devoted to important Japanese works of art of the 20th century. The collection covers works of past artists outstanding in the history of Japanese art; outstanding works of contemporary artists; and works selected for their historical importance. The

Jardin des Plantes, one of the world’s foremost botanical gardens, located in Paris. It was founded in 1626 as a royal garden of medicinal plants and was first opened to the public in 1650. Under the superintendence of G.-L.L. Buffon (1739–88) the garden was greatly expanded, and it developed into

museum: The spread of the European model: …Bogotá, Colombia (1824), and the national museums of natural history in Santiago, Chile (1830), and Montevideo, Uruguay (1837). In Canada the zoological collection of the Pictou Academy in Nova Scotia (founded in 1816) was probably opened to the public by 1822. In South Africa a museum based on the zoological…

National Museum of Natural History, American museum of natural history, part of the Smithsonian Institution, located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Smithsonian Institution began gathering specimens of natural history in 1838 and continued collecting by gift, purchase, or expedition

museum: History museums: The former National Museum of Popular Arts and Traditions in Paris exemplified a national approach within a museum building. The museum’s closure in 2005, however, suggested changing trends in an era of increased globalization. The Museum of Civilizations from Europe and the Mediterranean (Mucem) absorbed some of…

Rafael Moneo: …was commissioned to design the National Museum of Roman Art in Mérida (1986), which brought him international recognition and became one of his most-celebrated buildings. For the museum’s soaring structural arches, its most notable feature, Moneo took his inspiration from the ancient Roman theatre located across the street. Another well-known,…

Tajikistan: Cultural institutions: …end of which sits the National Museum of Tajikistan, featuring both historical and archaeological exhibits.

National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution museum established by an act of Congress in 1989, with branches in New York City; Suitland, Maryland; and Washington, D.C. Permanent and temporary exhibits showcase the diverse heritage and history of North and South American Indians.

Bargello Museum, art museum established in 1865 and housed in the Palazzo del Bargello (or del Podestà), Florence, which dates from the 13th and 14th centuries. Since 2014 the museum has been the leading institution of the Musei del Bargello, which comprises four other Florentine museums: the

Prado Museum, art museum in Madrid, housing the world’s richest and most comprehensive collection of Spanish painting, as well as masterpieces of other schools of European painting, especially Italian and Flemish art. The Prado’s building had its start in 1785 when Charles III commissioned the

museum: Other national and regional museums: In Australia the National Museum of Victoria was established at Melbourne in 1854; it was followed by the National Gallery of Victoria in 1861 and the Science Museum of Victoria in 1870. In Cairo the Egyptian Museum was established in 1858. These all followed the European model, and…

National Etruscan Museum, museum in Rome devoted principally to antiquities of the pre-Roman period from ancient Umbria, Latium, and southern Etruria. Since 1889 the museum has been housed in the Villa Giulia, or Villa di Papa Giulio (Pope Julius), which was built in the mid-16th century for Pope

Wales: Cultural institutions: The National Museum of Wales (1907) is situated in Cardiff; the Museum of Welsh Life, in the castle and grounds of nearby St. Fagans, embraces the antiquities and natural history of Wales along with a comprehensive Welsh art collection; and the Segontium Roman Museum in Caernarfon…

National Museum of Western Art, Japanese national collection of European art, located in Ueno Park, Tokyo. The museum building, designed by Le Corbusier, was opened in 1959, and an annex by Maekawa Kunio was added in 1979. The basis of the collection was a group of more than 400 French paintings,

National Museum of Women in the Arts (NMWA), museum in Washington, D.C., dedicated to art made by women. Founded by collectors Wilhelmina Cole Holladay and Wallace F. Holladay, her husband, in 1981, it was the first museum of its kind in the world. By the 21st century the National Museum of Women

museum: New museums and collections: …the principal cities by its National Museums and Monuments Commission to assist in developing cultural identity and to promote national unity. The Jos Museum, one of the earliest of these, also administers a museum of traditional buildings, while others developed workshops where traditional crafts could be demonstrated. Crafts are also…

Edinburgh: Cultural life: National Museums Scotland operates several Edinburgh museums, including the National Museum of Scotland, which was formed in 2006 from the merger of the Royal Museum, with its extensive international and natural history displays, and the Museum of Scotland, which contains exhibits on Scottish history and…

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), interracial American organization created to work for the abolition of segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation; to oppose racism; and to ensure African Americans their

African Americans: African American life during the Great Depression and the New Deal: …to the founding of the National Negro Congress in 1936 and the Southern Negro Youth Congress in 1937.

Coleman Young: …helped found in 1951 the National Negro Labor Council (NNLC), which sought jobs for African Americans. In 1952 Young, who had developed a reputation as a radical, was called before the House Committee on Un-American Activities. His pugnacious testimony earned him widespread publicity, and he later disbanded the NNLC so…

Spain: Railroads: …Network of Spanish Railroads (Red Nacional de los Ferrocarriles Españoles; RENFE). There are also regionally operated lines in the Basque Country, Valencia, and Catalonia. Lines generally start in Madrid and radiate outward in all directions. Transverse lines serve the Mediterranean and Ebro valley corridors. New equipment—including the Talgo, a…

classification of religions: Morphological: First are the national nomistic (legal) religions that are particularistic, limited to the horizon of one people only and based upon a sacred law drawn from sacred books. Above them are the universalistic religions, qualitatively different in kind, aspiring to be accepted by all men, and based upon…

Nonpartisan League, in U.S. history, alliance of farmers to secure state control of marketing facilities by endorsing a pledged supporter from either major party. It was founded in North Dakota by a Socialist, Arthur C. Townley, in 1915, at the height of the Progressive movement in the Northwest.

William Ernest Henley: …in 1891 and became the National Observer. Though conservative in its political outlook, it was liberal in its literary taste and published the work of Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, James Barrie, William Butler Yeats, and Rudyard Kipling. As an editor and critic, Henley was remembered by young…

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: …of the United States The National Ocean Service, for activities related to the health and productivity of the oceans and coasts bordering the United States The National Weather Service, for providing weather-related forecasts and warnings for the United States, its possessions, and its marine and freshwater approaches The Office of…

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: …of the United States The National Ocean Service, for activities related to the health and productivity of the oceans and coasts bordering the United States The National Weather Service, for providing weather-related forecasts and warnings for the United States, its possessions, and its marine and freshwater approaches The Office of…

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. governmental agency established in 1970 within the Department of Commerce to study Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and coastal areas insofar as they affect the land surface and coastal regions of the United States. The organization is

Libya: Competing governments in Tripoli and Tobruk: While the National Oil Corporation (NOC) in Tripoli remained in control of the country’s oil under the auspices of the NSG, a campaign by the House of Representatives to decentralize the company allowed the formation of a rival National Oil Corporation in the east. Meanwhile, internal tensions…

Olympic Games: National Olympic committees, international federations, and organizing committees: Each country that desires to participate in the Olympic Games must have a national Olympic committee accepted by the IOC. By the early 21st century there were more than 200 such committees.

Robert Owen: Leadership of the trade union movement: …the transformation of the new National Operative Builders Union into a guild and the establishment of the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1834). Although the enthusiasm of the unions and the numbers of labourers joining them were remarkable, determined opposition by employers and severe repression by the government and courts…

Andrew Greeley: …senior study director of the National Opinion Research Center (NORC; 1961–68), and program director for higher education at NORC (1968–70). In 1985 he became a research associate at NORC’s Center for the Study of Politics and Society. Greeley also taught at the University of Illinois, Chicago, and at the University…

Violeta Barrios de Chamorro: …presidential candidate of the 14-party National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Opositor; UNO) alliance, won a surprisingly easy victory over President Daniel Ortega Saavedra, head of the Sandinistas. She was inaugurated on April 25, 1990.

Ravi Shankar: Early life and career: …time he founded the Indian National Orchestra. After his stint at AIR he began a series of European and American tours.

organic food: Policy: …regulates organic production through its National Organic Program (NOP), which serves to facilitate national and international marketing and sales of organically produced food and to assure consumers that USDA certified organic products meet uniform standards. To this end, NOP established three specific labels for consumers on organic food products: “100%…

National Organization for Men Against Sexism (NOMAS), the oldest antisexist men’s organization in the United States, advocating for feminist causes. NOMAS began as a loose coalition of pro-feminist men in the 1970s, and its members initially advocated for feminist causes specifically related to

National Organization for Men Against Sexism (NOMAS), the oldest antisexist men’s organization in the United States, advocating for feminist causes. NOMAS began as a loose coalition of pro-feminist men in the 1970s, and its members initially advocated for feminist causes specifically related to

Lillian D. Wald: …became first president of the National Organization for Public Health Nursing. She also worked to establish educational, recreational, and social programs in underprivileged neighbourhoods. In 1912 Congress established the U.S. Children’s Bureau (headed by Julia Lathrop), also in no small part owing to Wald’s suggestion, and in that year she…

National Organization for Women (NOW), American activist organization (founded 1966) that promotes equal rights for women. It is the largest feminist group in the United States, with some 500,000 members in the early 21st century. The National Organization for Women was established by a small group

nursing: History of nursing: …in the United States, the National Organization of Coloured Graduate Nurses (NOCGN) capitalized on the acute shortage of nurses during World War II and successfully pushed for the desegregation of both the military nursing corps and the nursing associations. The American Nurses Association (ANA) desegregated in 1949, one of the…

EOKA, underground nationalist movement of Greek Cypriots dedicated to ending British colonial rule in Cyprus (achieved in 1960) and to achieving the eventual union (Greek enosis) of Cyprus with Greece. EOKA was organized by Col. Georgios Grivas, an officer in the Greek army, with the support of

Senegal: Economy of Senegal: …with the creation of the National Organization of the Rural Sector. The organization, the backbone of President Léopold Senghor’s policy of African socialism, bought and sold peanuts, rice, and millet and also sold fertilizer, seed, tools, and equipment.

eugenics: Eugenics organizations and legislation: …ultimately led to a new immigration law in 1924 that severely restricted the annual immigration of individuals from countries previously claimed to have contributed excessively to the dilution of American “good stock.”

P’ing-tung: …is the seat of the National P’ing-tung Polytechnic Institute (founded 1954) and has junior colleges for teacher training, pharmacology, nursing, and technology. The San-ti-men Bridge is about 9 miles (14 km) northeast of the city. Pop. (2007 est.) 215,962.

Meat Inspection Act of 1906: Origins of reform: …public outrage was the “Beef Trust”—a collaborative group made up of the five largest meatpacking companies—and its base of packinghouses in Chicago’s Packingtown area. Journalists published pieces in radical and muckraking magazines detailing the monopolistic and exploitive practices of Beef Trust businesses as well as the unsanitary conditions of…

Associations for the Defense of Rights: …had been formulated as the National Pact at the league’s two congresses—goals of national independence, territorial integrity, and armed resistance to foreign occupation. After Allied forces occupied Istanbul (March 1920) and Mustafa Kemal convened the Grand National Assembly (GNA) in Ankara on April 23, two factions of the defense associations…

Mexico City: Government: …seat of power is the National Palace, originally the residence of the viceroys during the colonial period. It is located on the east side of the Zócalo, where enormous crowds gather every September 15 at 11 pm (on the eve of Mexican Independence Day) to join the president in the…

Mafra: …is noted primarily for the National Palace (also containing a church and monastery), built (1717–35) by King John V in thanksgiving for the birth of a son and heir to the throne. The building, which measures 700 feet (213 metres) from east to west and 800 feet (244 metres) from…

National Palace Museum, major art museum in Taipei, Taiwan, that preserves many of the art holdings of the Chinese imperial collection. The museum houses more than 650,000 art objects and documents that were formerly held at Beijing. (Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on art appreciation.) The

national park, an area set aside by a national government for the preservation of the natural environment. A national park may be set aside for purposes of public recreation and enjoyment or because of its historical or scientific interest. Most of the landscapes and their accompanying plants and

National Park Service (NPS), agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior that manages and maintains several hundred national parks, monuments, historical sites, and other designated properties of the federal government. It was established in 1916 by an act of the U.S. Congress that was signed

National Park Service: The contemporary NPS: In addition, a “National Park Service Centennial Act,” proposed by the NPS for enactment by Congress, detailed several provisions—including establishing an endowment for the federal National Park Foundation and expanding the park-volunteers program—that were intended to strengthen the NPS as it began its second century.

New Zealand National Party, political party founded in 1936 in the merger of non-Labour groups, most notably the United Party and the Reform Party, two parties that had been in coalition since 1931. It supports free-market economic policies and draws votes heavily from suburban and rural districts.

Bangladesh: Bangladesh since independence: …and he formed his own National Party (Jatiya Party). In the election of May 1986, which was boycotted by many opposition parties, the National Party won most of the seats in the legislature.

Czechoslovak history: National turmoil under the dual monarchy: Meanwhile, differentiation within the National Party (the main Czech political party) began in 1863 and continued more rapidly after 1867.

Chile: New political groupings: …joined together to form the National Party. The centrist Radical Party also lost support. A common point existed between the Christian Democratic Party and the Marxist parties—the wish to weaken the old economic and political oligarchy and to try to rescue the country from its chronic underdevelopment by more decisive…

ʿAbbās II: …to the formation of the National Party, headed by Muṣṭafā Kāmil, to counter the Ummah Party of the moderate nationalists, which was supported by the British. With the appointment of Lord Kitchener as consul general (1912–14), the leaders of the National Party were exiled or imprisoned, and ʿAbbās’s authority was…

Turkey: World War II and the postwar era, 1938–50: …were established, including the conservative National Party (1948); socialist and communist activities, however, were severely repressed.

National Party (NP), South African political party, founded in 1914, which ruled the country from 1948 to 1994. Its following included most of the Dutch-descended Afrikaners and many English-speaking whites. The National Party was long dedicated to policies of apartheid and white supremacy, but by

the Nationals, Australian political party that for most of its history has held office as a result of its customary alliance with the Liberal Party of Australia. It often acted as a margin in the balance of power, but its own power declined over the years. In 1934 it could command 16 percent of the

Odumegwu Ojukwu: He joined the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) in January 1983 and subsequently attempted to reenter politics; his bid for the senate representing the state of Anambra was unsuccessful. He was detained for 10 months following a coup that brought Muhammadu Buhari to power at the end of…

National Party (NP), South African political party, founded in 1914, which ruled the country from 1948 to 1994. Its following included most of the Dutch-descended Afrikaners and many English-speaking whites. The National Party was long dedicated to policies of apartheid and white supremacy, but by

Charles Taylor: …Libya, where he formed the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), a militia group that invaded the country in late 1989.

Thailand: Partial democracy and the search for a new political order: …a junta calling itself the National Peacekeeping Council. Although nominally led by Gen. Sunthorn Kongsompong, another powerful leader of the junta was army chief Suchinda Kraprayoon. The junta promised elections and, as an indication of this commitment, appointed the politically liberal Anand Punyarachun, a former diplomat and business leader, as…

Lázaro Cárdenas: …its beneficiaries in a new National Peasant Confederation (Confederación Nacional Campesina, or CNC). This was but one more step in strengthening the general political structure of his new regime. Another major step in this direction was taken early in 1936 when most of the country’s dispersed central labour groups were…

Iuliu Maniu: From 1926 he headed the National Peasant Party, created in that year by the fusion of his Transylvanian National Party with the Peasant Party of Ion Mihalache. Between November 1928 and October 1930 he served as prime minister of a National Peasant administration, which failed to fulfill its mandate for…

Algeria: Constitutional framework: …the country’s lower house, the National People’s Assembly (Majlis al-Shaʿbī al-Waṭanī), deputies of which are elected for five-year terms by universal adult suffrage. Debate then passes to the upper house, the Council of the Nation (Majlis al-Ummah), members of which serve six-year terms. One-third of council members are appointed by…

China: Constitutional framework: …in the hands of the National People’s Congress and its Standing Committee. The State Council and its Standing Committee, by contrast, are made responsible for executing rather than enacting the laws. This basic division of power is also specified for each of the territorial divisions—province, county, and so forth—with the…

Nationalist Party, political party that governed all or part of mainland China from 1928 to 1949 and subsequently ruled Taiwan under Chiang Kai-shek and his successors for most of the time since then. Originally a revolutionary league working for the overthrow of the Chinese monarchy, the

history of Europe: The lottery in Weimar: …old conservatives (now called the National People’s Party), with 42 seats, and the new People’s Party, with 21. On the left, the Independent Socialists had 22 seats.

Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), regional political party in Bihar state, eastern India. It also had a presence in national politics in New Delhi. The RJD was formed in July 1997 in New Delhi by Lalu Prasad Yadav, who had broken away from the Janata Dal (People’s Party). Raghuvansh Prasad Singh and

petroleum: Status of the world oil supply: In 2007 the National Petroleum Council, an advisory committee to the U.S. Secretary of Energy, projected that world demand for oil would rise from 86 million barrels per day to as much as 138 million barrels per day in 2030. Yet experts remain divided on whether the world…

Pinyin romanization: …with the creation of the National Phonetic Alphabet based on Chinese characters. Several attempts were made in the 1920s and ’30s to devise and promote a Latin alphabet for the Chinese language, but with little concrete success. After the communist takeover of China in 1949, work on a comprehensive script…

Alan Turing: Computer designer: …Turing was recruited to the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in London to create an electronic computer. His design for the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) was the first complete specification of an electronic stored-program all-purpose digital computer. Had Turing’s ACE been built as he planned, it would have had vastly more…

National Road, first federal highway in the United States and for several years the main route to what was then the Northwest Territory. Built (1811–37) from Cumberland, Maryland (western terminus of a state road from Baltimore and of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal), to Vandalia, Illinois, it forms

Jamaame: The National Plastic and Carton Company was established at Jamaame in collaboration with the Italian government in 1974. This industry was able to promote banana exports when it developed a local packing material to replace imported packing, thus reducing the price of Somali bananas in Europe.…

slam poetry: An artistic movement: Smith’s vision also spawned the National Poetry Slam, an annual five-day poetry slam held from 1990 through 2018, where teams of poets from cities all over the United States and Canada competed to determine the best in the genre. The documentary film SlamNation, released in 1998, follows the team of…

physical culture: Athletic clubs and sports: …culture most, however, was the National Police Gazette, which sold 2,225,000 copies weekly by 1895. Edited by Richard K. Fox, it offered a steady dose of sporting excitement, along with articles on crime, scandal, and gossip. The Gazette also aroused working-class passions by sponsoring world championships in everything from wood…

Self-Defense Force, Japan’s military after World War II. In Article 9 of Japan’s postwar constitution, the Japanese renounced war and pledged never to maintain land, sea, or air forces. The rearming of Japan in the 1950s was therefore cast in terms of self-defense. In 1950 a small military force

strategy: Fundamentals: …encompasses the coordination of all state policy, including economic and diplomatic tools of statecraft, to pursue some national or coalitional ends.

Clean Water Act: …CWA’s discharge permit program, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). NPDES requires any wastewater-treatment plant to obtain discharge permits and follow EPA guidelines for water treatment. The permits place limits on the amount of material that can be discharged. Additionally, many wastewater plants participate in the National Pretreatment Program,…

EAM-ELAS, communist-sponsored resistance organization (formed September 1941) and its military wing (formed December 1942), which operated in occupied Greece during World War II. Fighting against the Germans and the Italians as well as against other guerrilla bands, particularly EDES, EAM-ELAS

Electoral College: Arguments for and against the Electoral College: …efforts on passing a so-called National Popular Vote (NPV) bill through state legislatures. State legislatures that enacted the NPV would agree that their state’s electoral votes would be cast for the winner of the national popular vote—even if that person was not the winner of the state’s popular vote; language…

National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, an agreement joined by several U.S. states and the District of Columbia to circumvent the Electoral College by ensuring that the winner of the Electoral College vote, who then becomes the president of the United States, is also the winner of the national

National Portrait Gallery, museum in London that houses the national collection of portraits of British men and women. It is located adjacent to the National Gallery, north of Trafalgar Square, in Westminster. (Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on art appreciation.) The gallery was founded by an

National Portrait Gallery, American gallery dedicated to portraiture of Americans. It is part of the Smithsonian Institution, located in Washington, D.C. Although the Smithsonian Institution began collecting portraits in 1921, the National Portrait Gallery did not officially open until 1962. In

National Postal Museum, philatelic museum and research centre in the City of London. It is located in a section of London’s General Post Office, next to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. The museum opened in 1966, largely through the efforts of Reginald M. Phillips, who donated his 19th-century stamp

The Family: Move to Washington: Known since 1970 as the National Prayer Breakfast, it is regularly addressed by the president of the United States and is conceived of by the movement as a consecration of the governing class to the service of Jesus.

José Clemente Orozco: Mature work and later years: …on the walls of the National Preparatory School in Mexico City; these artists’ efforts initiated the Mexican muralist movement. Orozco was dissatisfied with his early murals there; he decided they were too derivative of European traditions, and he destroyed many of them. Those works dating from 1926, however, such as…

Helen Thomas: …colleagues forced the then all-male National Press Club to allow them to attend an address to the group by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. When the National Press Club finally opened its membership to women in 1971, Thomas became its first female officer. In 1975 the Gridiron Club, Washington’s most exclusive…

National Primitive Baptist Convention, Inc., association of independent black Baptist churches in the United States that were joined in a national convention in 1907. The convention developed from black congregations formed after the American Civil War by emancipated slaves who had previously

Canton: …in organizing the sport, the Pro Football Hall of Fame was established there in 1963.

Iraq: The revolution of 1968: …willing to participate in the National Progressive Front (NPF). The ICP had also shown interest. A Charter for National Action, prepared by the Baʿath Party, was published in the press for public discussion and became the basis for cooperation with the ICP and other parties.

Montserrat: History of Montserrat: The newly formed National Progressive Party (NPP) took the reins of government in 1991. In July 1995 volcanic domes in the Soufrière Hills began erupting after centuries of dormancy, spewing ash and lava across large areas of the island. A major eruption in June 1997 killed 19 people,…

Volstead Act, U.S. law enacted in 1919 (and taking effect in 1920) to provide enforcement for the Eighteenth Amendment, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. It is named for Minnesota Rep. Andrew Volstead, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee, who had championed the bill

John Saint John: …the presidential candidate of the National Prohibition Party. It is thought that his campaign in New York, where he made his strongest effort, may have drawn sufficient votes away from Republican candidate James G. Blaine to tip the state—and with it the election—to Grover Cleveland.

China: Yuan’s attempts to become emperor: …the National Protection Army (Huguojun) and demanded that Yuan cancel his plan. When he would not, the Yunnan army in early January 1916 invaded Sichuan and subsequently Hunan and Guangdong, hoping to bring the southwestern and southern provinces into rebellion and to then induce the lower Yangtze provinces to…

China: The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898: In April 1898 the National Protection Society was established in Beijing under the premise of protecting state, nation, and national religion. Against this background, the Guangxu emperor (reigned 1874/75–1908) was himself increasingly affected by the ideas of reform that were broadly in the air and perhaps was also directly…

National Public Radio, more commonly known as NPR, is the public radio network of the United States. Based in Washington, D.C., NPR offers a broad range of high-quality news and cultural programming to hundreds of local public radio stations. U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson signed the 1967 Public

public administration: Japan: The National Public Service Law of 1947 set up an independent National Personnel Authority to administer recruitment, promotion, conditions of employment, standards of performance, and job classification for the new civil service. Technically the emperor himself became a civil servant, and detailed regulations brought within the…