English garden, type of garden that developed in 18th-century England, originating as a revolt against the architectural garden, which relied on rectilinear patterns, sculpture, and the unnatural shaping of trees. The revolutionary character of the English garden lay in the fact that, whereas

M.H. Abrams: Natural Supernaturalism (1971) explores a broader reach of the Romantic sensibility, including its religious implications and its influence on modern literature. Further critical essays by Abrams on Romantic topics were collected in The Correspondent Breeze (1984).

taxonomy: From the Greeks to the Renaissance: …described a large number of natural groups, and, although he ranked them from simple to complex, his order was not an evolutionary one. He was far ahead of his time, however, in separating invertebrate animals into different groups and was aware that whales, dolphins, and porpoises had mammalian characters (that…

organization theory: Key questions, units of analysis, and debates: The natural system perspective advances the idea that informal and interpersonal structures within an organization are more important than formal structures. People within an organization have multiple interests, and consensus-building or conflictual processes drive organizational action. Last, the open-system perspective argues that one cannot look at…

Enlightenment: Reason and religion: Beyond the natural religion of the Deists lay the more radical products of the application of reason to religion: skepticism, atheism, and materialism.

Michel de Montaigne: Life: …French translation of the 15th-century Natural Theology by the Spanish monk Raymond Sebond. He had undertaken the task at the request of his father, who, however, died in 1568, before its publication, leaving to his oldest son the title and the domain of Montaigne.

Emil Brunner: …Barth”; published in 1946 as Natural Theology), Brunner broke with Karl Barth’s theology by asserting that humanity has borne the “image of God” since Creation and has never wholly lost it, a view that provoked Barth’s vigorous disagreement.

William Paley: …until the 20th century; and Natural Theology (1802), based on John Ray’s Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691). In Natural Theology, Paley used the analogy of the watch: both the world and the watch presuppose a maker. The book strongly influenced Charles Darwin.

trumpet: Later forms included the natural trumpet of the 16th–18th centuries and, following the invention of valves about 1815, the modern valve trumpet. The valve trumpet, ordinarily built in B♭, maintains the traditional trumpet bore, cylindrical with a terminal bell flare, though usually the bore tapers toward the mouthpiece to…

vibration: Free vibrations occur when the system is disturbed momentarily and then allowed to move without restraint. A classic example is provided by a weight suspended from a spring. In equilibrium, the system has minimum energy and the weight is at rest. If the weight is…

3-D: The first 3-D film in Natural Vision was Bwana Devil (1952), which was followed by several hastily shot action films. It is generally believed that the popularity of 3-D in the United States subsided after about a year because of the low quality of the films presented. Filmmakers in Italy,…

contour drawing: …popularized by Kimon Nicolaïdes in The Natural Way to Draw (1941).

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: …are determined by Wesenwille (natural will)—i.e., natural and spontaneously arising emotions and expressions of sentiment.

The Natural, first novel by Bernard Malamud, published in 1952. The story of gifted athlete Roy Hobbs and his talismanic bat “Wonderboy” is counted among the finest baseball novels. It is at heart a fable that loosely follows the Holy Grail myth. Hobbs’s promising baseball career is cut short when

Randy Newman: …notably for Ragtime (1981) and The Natural (1984); he earned his first Grammy for his sound track for the latter film. In 1995 he began a fruitful collaboration with Pixar Animation Studios, and he received two Academy Award nominations for his work on Toy Story (1995). He received three more…

submarine: Reactors: …of marine nuclear reactor: pressurized-water, natural-circulation, and liquid-metal.

riparian right: …States was premised on the natural-flow doctrine, pursuant to which a riparian owner has the right to a natural-water flow of undiminished quantity and unimpaired quality. By the mid-19th century, however, virtually all American states had repudiated the natural-flow doctrine in favour of a second doctrine, that of “reasonable use.”…

Seneca: Philosophical works and tragedies: …natural science, Naturales quaestiones (Natural Questions), where lofty generalities on the investigation of nature are offset by a jejune exposition of the facts. Of the Consolationes, Ad Marciam (To Marcia) consoles a lady on the loss of a son; Ad Helviam matrem (To Mother Helvia), Seneca’s mother on his…

art market: Northern Europe and the Austrian Empire: …were known as Kunstkammern or Wunderkammern, from Kunst (“man-made objects”), Wunder (“natural curiosities”), and Kammern (“chambers, rooms”).

Natural History, encyclopaedic scientific work of dubious accuracy by Pliny the Elder, completed in 77 ce as Naturae historiae and conventionally known as Naturalis historia. Although Pliny did not distinguish between fact, opinion, and speculation in his 37-volume treatise, he can be credited with

naturalism, in literature and the visual arts, late 19th- and early 20th-century movement that was inspired by adaptation of the principles and methods of natural science, especially the Darwinian view of nature, to literature and art. In literature it extended the tradition of realism, aiming at

naturalism, in philosophy, a theory that relates scientific method to philosophy by affirming that all beings and events in the universe (whatever their inherent character may be) are natural. Consequently, all knowledge of the universe falls within the pale of scientific investigation. Although

Rudolf Otto: Scholarly pursuits.: …Naturalistische und religiöse Weltansicht (1904; Naturalism and Religion, 1907), in which he contrasted the naturalistic and the religious ways of interpreting the world, first indicating their antitheses and then raising the question of whether the contradictions can be or should be reconciled.

Amazon River: Early European exploration: His book The Naturalist on the River Amazons, originally published in two volumes in 1863, is still regarded as one of the great classics on the Amazon River. An official expedition was sent from the United States to Amazonia in the mid-19th century; in 1854 in Washington,…

Tassili-n-Ajjer: …school of art, the “Naturalistic Bubaline,” which was approximately contemporary with the Round Head paintings. These artists used a remarkably naturalistic style to depict domestic cattle and wild animals, including the now-extinct giant buffalo.

naturalistic fallacy, Fallacy of treating the term “good” (or any equivalent term) as if it were the name of a natural property. In 1903 G.E. Moore presented in Principia Ethica his “open-question argument” against what he called the naturalistic fallacy, with the aim of proving that “good” is the

Peter Henry Emerson: In his handbook Naturalistic Photography (1889), he outlined a system of aesthetics. He decreed that a photograph should be direct and simple and show real people in their own environment, not costumed models posed before fake backdrops or other such predetermined formulas.

Rudolf Otto: Scholarly pursuits.: …Naturalistische und religiöse Weltansicht (1904; Naturalism and Religion, 1907), in which he contrasted the naturalistic and the religious ways of interpreting the world, first indicating their antitheses and then raising the question of whether the contradictions can be or should be reconciled.

naturalization, the act of investing an alien with the status of a national in a given state; it may be accomplished as the result of voluntary application, special legislative direction, marriage to a citizen, or parental action. Naturalization may also occur when one’s home territory is annexed

Act of Settlement: ” By the Naturalization Act of 1870 this clause was virtually repealed for all persons who obtain a certificate of naturalization.

Western philosophy: Naturalized epistemology: The philosophical psychology and philosophy of mind developed since the 1950s by the American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000), known generally as naturalized epistemology, was influenced both by Russell’s work in logic and by logical positivism. Quine’s philosophy forms a comprehensive system…

Sophus Claussen: …myths of human existence in Naturbørn (1887; “Children of Nature”) and Pilefløjter (1899; “Willow Pipes”) remains in the Danish tradition. Claussen also published several travel books and lyrical prose tales of small-town life in Denmark. He translated some of his favourite poets, including Percy Bysshe Shelley, Heinrich Heine, and Charles…

Ralph Waldo Emerson: Mature life and works: …in man’s spiritual relation to nature. In England he paid memorable visits to Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, and Thomas Carlyle. At home once more in 1833, he began to write Nature and established himself as a popular and influential lecturer. By 1834 he had found a permanent dwelling place…

Henry Medwall: A morality play, Nature, a good example of the allegorical type of early drama, displays Medwall’s talent for realistic dialogue and his skill as a versifier. Fulgens and Lucrece is a debate on the origins of true nobility, enlivened by the interruptions of household servants.

Japanese architecture: …Japan—is an understanding of the natural world as a source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion.

Deepwater Horizon oil spill: Aftermath and impact: …study published in the journal Nature in 2020 found that fish in the Gulf of Mexico continued to show evidence of contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Reinhold Niebuhr: Pastor and theologian: >The Nature and Destiny of Man, 2 vol. (1941–43), was planned by him as a synthesis both of the insights of the Reformation and of the Renaissance, with its hopefulness about cultural achievements.

Erwin Schrödinger: …and philosophy, summarized in his Nature and the Greeks (1954), gave him both an admiration for the Greek invention of the scientific view of the world and a skepticism toward the relevance of science as a unique tool with which to unravel the ultimate mysteries of human existence. Schrödinger’s own…

Horace Bushnell: In Nature and the Supernatural (1858) he viewed the twin elements of the title as constituting the one “system of God” and sought to defend from skeptical attack the Christian position on sin, miracles, incarnation, revelation, and Christ’s divinity.

Nature Conservancy, nonprofit organization dedicated to environmental conservation and the preservation of biodiversity. It operates the largest private system of nature sanctuaries in the world. Founded in 1951 in Washington, D.C., it owns and manages more than 1,500 preserves throughout the

Ten Sleep: …entrance to the canyon is Nature Conservancy Ten Sleep Preserve (formerly the Girl Scouts National Center West), which harbours populations of mammals and more than 100 bird species. A conservation buffalo herd was begun at a nearby ranch in 1974. The village is a supply point for a livestock and…

conservation, study of the loss of Earth’s biological diversity and the ways this loss can be prevented. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life either in a particular place or on the entire planet Earth, including its ecosystems, species, populations, and genes. Conservation

Bruce Nauman: …a 3-D video camera in Nature Morte (2020).

mysticism: Mysticism and reason: …Western rational mystics have contemplated nature—its forms, structures, laws, and quantities—as a means of participating in the divine intellect. While some rational mystics have regarded nature as a contemplative end in itself, for others the contemplation of nature is a source of insight regarding its creator. The most famous modern…

Queen Latifah: Her second album, Nature of a Sista (1991), however, failed to match the sales of her previous effort, and Tommy Boy did not re-sign her. After signing with Motown Records, she released Black Reign in 1993. The album was a critical and commercial success, and the single “U.N.I.T.Y.,”…

art criticism: Clement Greenberg: In his famous essay “Nature of Abstract Art” (1937), Meyer Schapiro critiques Barr, arguing that such a clearly defined “flowchart” view of formal development—seeing art as moving in one clear direction—assumes that artistic development has nothing to do with extra-artistic reality or, for that matter, as Schapiro emphasizes, the…

A.L. Kroeber: The Nature of Culture (1952) collected Kroeber’s essays published on such topics as cultural theory, kinship, social psychology, and psychoanalysis.

Moritz Hauptmann: …der Harmonik und Metrik (1853; The Nature of Harmony and Metric).

Joy Paul Guilford: …of intellect, was outlined in The Nature of Human Intelligence (1967).

analytic philosophy: Moore and Russell: …in a paper entitled “The Nature of Judgment” (1899), argued for a theory of truth that implies that the physical world does have the independent existence that it is naively supposed to have. Although the theory was soon abandoned, it represented British philosophy’s return to common sense.

Max Black: …interest in mathematics resulted in The Nature of Mathematics (1933), a study of the various historical conceptions of that field. Black was heavily influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, and his interest in that philosopher’s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus bore fruit in the comprehensive and highly regarded study A Companion to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus (1964).…

Ruth Prawer Jhabvala: …also published as Amrita) and The Nature of Passion (1956), won much critical acclaim for their comic depiction of Indian society and manners. She was often compared to Jane Austen for her microscopic studies of a tightly conventional world. Her position as both insider and detached observer allowed her a…

gnosticism: Diversity of gnostic myths: …the Nag Hammadi library, the Nature of the Archons and On the Origin of the World, contain a figure named Sabaoth, one of the sons of Ialdabaoth, who is reminiscent of Justin’s Elohim. When Sabaoth realizes that there is a higher realm, he undergoes a kind of conversion, condemns Ialdabaoth,…

Linus Pauling: Elucidation of molecular structures: His book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals (1939) provided a unified summary of his vision of structural chemistry.

Ronald Coase: …other published works include “The Nature of the Firm” (1937), his seminal paper in which he introduced the concept of transaction costs to explain the evolution of companies and industries; The Firm, the Market, and the Law (1988); and How China Became Capitalist (2012; with Ning Wang).

David Suzuki: …especially through his television series The Nature of Things with David Suzuki (1979– ), and for his efforts in environmental conservation.

Jonathan Edwards: Pastorate at Stockbridge: …God Created the World and The Nature of True Virtue (1765). God’s glory, not human happiness, is his end in creation; but this is because God in his all-sufficient fullness must communicate himself by the exercise of his attributes. God can be said to aim at the creature’s happiness, but…

classification of religions: Morphological: …Tiele’s views, develops out of nature religion,

nature reserve, area set aside for the purpose of preserving certain animals, plants, or both. A nature reserve differs from a national park usually in being smaller and having as its sole purpose the protection of nature. Endangered species are often kept in reserves, away from the hunters who

nature worship: Nature as a sacred totality: …to what are called “nature spirits,” which are the forces or personifications of the forces of nature. High gods exist, for example, in such indigenous religions on Africa’s west coast as that of the Dyola of Guinea. In such religions the human spiritual environment is functionally structured by means…

Anna Botsford Comstock: …remembered for her work in nature study.

heredity: Heredity and environment: A notion that was widespread among pioneer biologists in the 18th century was that the fetus, and hence the adult organism that develops from it, is preformed in the sex cells. Some early microscopists even imagined that they saw…

nature worship, system of religion based on the veneration of natural phenomena—for example, celestial objects such as the sun and moon and terrestrial objects such as water and fire. In the history of religions and cultures, nature worship as a definite and complex system of belief or as a

law of nature, in the philosophy of science, a stated regularity in the relations or order of phenomena in the world that holds, under a stipulated set of conditions, either universally or in a stated proportion of instances. (The notion is distinct from that of a natural law—i.e., a law of right

Aristotelianism: Nature of Aristotelianism: In the philosophy of nature (see philosophy of biology; philosophy of physics), Aristotelianism denotes an optimistic position concerning nature’s aims and its economy; believing in the perfection and in the eternity of the heavenly, geocentric spheres, perceiving them as driven by intelligent movers, as carrying in their…

state of nature, in political theory, the real or hypothetical condition of human beings before or without political association. The notion of a state of nature was an essential element of the social-contract theories of the English philosophers Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and John Locke (1632–1704)

heredity: Heredity and environment: A notion that was widespread among pioneer biologists in the 18th century was that the fetus, and hence the adult organism that develops from it, is preformed in the sex cells. Some early microscopists even imagined that they saw…

Dutch literature: Poetry and prose: …compendia of knowledge, including his Der naturen bloeme (“The Flower of Nature”) and Spieghel historiael (“The Mirror of History”), answered a demand for the kind of self-instructional literature that long remained a characteristic of Dutch literature. The change in social patterns at this time is also evident in two epic…

Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl: …best known work is Die Naturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen Socialpolitik, 4 vol. (1851–69; “The Natural History of the German People as a Foundation of German Social Politics”), in which he emphasized geographical factors, social conditions, and German local life and culture. In the third volume, Die…

nudism, the practice of going without clothes, generally for reasons of health or comfort. Nudism is a social practice in which the sexes interact freely but commonly without engaging in sexual activities. The origin of the practice in Germany in the early 20th century coincided with a rebellion

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Friendship with Schiller (1794–1805) of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: …last conventional drama he wrote, Die natürliche Tochter (“The Natural Daughter”), which he began planning in 1799 and which was finally completed, produced, and published in 1803. In it the French Revolution appears as the enemy of beauty and as inaugurating a new age in which the Classical world will…

Friedrich von Wieser: …two most important works are Der natürliche Wert (1889; “Natural Value”) and Grundriss der Sozialökonomik (1914; “Foundations of Social Economy”). In the first of these he developed the Austrian-school theory of costs, building on Menger’s subjective-value approach and introducing the concept of opportunity cost. In Sozialökonomik the principle of marginal…

Adolf Engler: …to taxonomy is his monumental Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien (“The Natural Plant Families”) edited with Karl von Prantl and others (published in parts, 1887–1911), followed by Das Pflanzenreich (1900–37; “The Plant Kingdom”). In these works, Engler provided a comprehensive system of classification whose arrangements of plant orders and families became widely…

physical culture: Health fads: Naturopathy, including such practices as hydrotherapy, electrotherapy, herbal medicine, nutrition, massage, and homeopathy, drew on the Hippocratic notion of the healing power of nature and the capacity of the body for regeneration. One early health reformer was Sylvester Graham, a Presbyterian minister who preached temperance

Aleksandr Ivanovich Herzen: Early life.: …the German philosopher Friedrich Schelling’s Naturphilosophie.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: At Berlin: …der Philosophie des Rechts (1821; The Philosophy of Right). In Hegel’s works on politics and history, the human mind objectifies itself in its endeavour to find an object identical with itself. The Philosophy of Right (or The Philosophy of Law) falls into three main divisions. The first is concerned with…

National Westminster Bank, former British bank holding company with branches and subbranches in the United Kingdom and operations across the world. It was acquired by the Royal Bank of Scotland in 2000. The organization was formed in 1968 as National Westminster Bank Ltd. to merge two banking

dance: Indian classical dance: They are natya, the dramatic element of the dance (i.e., the imitation of character); nritta, pure dance, in which the rhythms and phrases of the music are reflected in the decorative movements of the hands and body and in the stamping of the feet; and nritya, the…

South Asian arts: Classical theatre: …the popular taste, and the natyadharmi, or stylized drama, which, using gesture language and symbols, was considered more artistic. In Shakuntala the king enters riding an imaginary chariot, and Shakuntala plucks flowers that are not there; in “The Little Clay Cart” the thief breaks through a nonexistent wall, and Maitreya…

Natyashastra, detailed treatise and handbook on dramatic art that deals with all aspects of classical Sanskrit theatre. It is believed to have been written by the mythic Brahman sage and priest Bharata (1st century bce–3rd century ce). Its many chapters contain detailed treatments of all the

Natyashastra, detailed treatise and handbook on dramatic art that deals with all aspects of classical Sanskrit theatre. It is believed to have been written by the mythic Brahman sage and priest Bharata (1st century bce–3rd century ce). Its many chapters contain detailed treatments of all the

nauarch, in ancient Greece, an admiral or supreme commander of the navy, used as an official title primarily in Sparta in the late 5th and early 4th centuries bc. The Spartan nauarch could hold office only once, for a period of one year, and being subject to the highest magistrates, the ephors,

nawbah , in Middle Eastern music, particularly the traditions of North Africa, an elaborate suite of movements that constitutes the main form of classical Arabic music in that region. It consists of 8 to 10 sections of varying length, rhythmic character, and degree of improvisation, depending on

creeping water bug, any flat-backed, oval-shaped insect of the family Naucoridae (order Heteroptera), which numbers about 150 species. These small, dark bugs, commonly found in tropical regions, range between 5 and 16 millimetres (0.2 and 0.6 inch) and, when submerged, breathe from air stored under

pilot fish, (Naucrates ductor), widely distributed marine fish of the family Carangidae (order Perciformes). Members of the species are found in the open sea throughout warm and tropical waters. The pilot fish is elongated and has a forked tail, a lengthwise keel on each side of the tail base, and

Naukratis, ancient Greek settlement in the Nile River delta, on the Canopic (western) branch of the river. An emporion (“trading station”) with exclusive trading rights in Egypt, Naukratis was the centre of cultural relations between Greece and Egypt in the pre-Hellenistic period. The station was

Gabriel Naudé was a French physician and librarian, considered the first important theoretician of modern library organization. His treatise, Advis pour dresser une bibliothèque (1627; Advice on Establishing a Library), was the first important study of library science. Naudé studied medicine at

Seymour, town (township), New Haven county, southwestern Connecticut, U.S. It lies along the Naugatuck River near New Haven. The area was settled about 1678 as part of Derby on land purchased from the Pequot Indians, who called it Naugatuck. It was known successively as Rimmon (1670); Chusetown

Naugatuck, town (township) and borough, New Haven county, southwestern Connecticut, U.S. It lies along the Naugatuck River just south of Waterbury. Settled as early as 1702 by Samuel Hickox from Waterbury, the locality was called Judd’s Meadows and, later, in 1734, South Farms. Following the

Bill Naughton was an Irish-born British playwright who is best remembered for a series of working-class comedies he wrote in the 1960s, most notably Alfie (1963; filmed 1966), an episodic, unsentimental tale of an egocentric Cockney womanizer. When Naughton was a child, his family moved from

Bill Naughton was an Irish-born British playwright who is best remembered for a series of working-class comedies he wrote in the 1960s, most notably Alfie (1963; filmed 1966), an episodic, unsentimental tale of an egocentric Cockney womanizer. When Naughton was a child, his family moved from

number game: Puzzles involving configurations: …for two players, such as ticktacktoe and its more sophisticated variations, one of which calls for each player to begin with three counters (3 black, 3 white); the first player places a counter in any cell, except the center cell, of a 3 × 3 diagram; the players then alternate…

Colleen Moore: pictures as Flaming Youth (1923), Naughty But Nice (1927), Synthetic Sin (1929), and Why Be Good? (1929).

Irving Thalberg: With Naughty Marietta (1935) he initiated a long series of successful musicals starring Jeanette MacDonald and Nelson Eddy. About the same time, he helped revive the Marx Brothers’ careers by producing two of their best comedies, A Night at the Opera (1935) and A Day at…

Naujan Lake, lake on the northeastern coastal plain of Mindoro, Philippines. It is the Philippines’ fifth largest lake, with an area of 30 square miles (79 square km). The lake is 8.5 miles (14 km) long and 4 miles (6 km) wide and is a productive freshwater fishing site. It is the central feature

Naujan Lake: …is the central feature of Naujan Lake National Park (established in 1956), which comprises a 5,377-acre (2,175-hectare) area of marshes and forest that serve as breeding grounds for marsh birds, crocodiles, and sail-finned lizards. Naujan Lake was formerly a popular hunting and sport-fishing area; fishing rights have been retained only…

Eskimo-Aleut languages: Yupik: …Prince William Sound; Naukan (Naukanski Siberian Yupik), whose speakers were resettled southward from Cape Dezhnyov, the easternmost point of the Eurasian landmass; Central Siberian Yupik (mainly Yupigestun [Akuzipik, Chaplinski Yupik]), which is spoken in the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska; and the very divergent Sirenikski, now…

Naukratis, ancient Greek settlement in the Nile River delta, on the Canopic (western) branch of the river. An emporion (“trading station”) with exclusive trading rights in Egypt, Naukratis was the centre of cultural relations between Greece and Egypt in the pre-Hellenistic period. The station was

Rudyard Kipling: Life: …whom he had collaborated in The Naulahka (1892), a facile and unsuccessful romance. That year the young couple moved to the United States and settled on Mrs. Kipling’s property in Vermont, but their manners and attitudes were considered objectionable by their neighbours. Unable or unwilling to adjust to life in…

naumachia, in ancient Rome, a mimic sea battle and the specially constructed basin in which such a battle sometimes took place. These entertainments also took place in flooded amphitheatres. The opposing sides were prisoners of war or convicts, who fought until one side was destroyed. The earliest