Iraq: British occupation and the mandatory regime: The Organic Law, as the constitution was called, went into effect right after it was signed by the king in March 1925. It provided for a constitutional monarchy, a parliamentary government, and a bicameral legislature. The latter was composed of an elected House of Representatives and…

Egypt: ʿAbbās Ḥilmī II, 1892–1914: The Organic Law of 1913 created a new and more powerful Legislative Assembly that served as a training ground for the nationalist leaders of the postwar period. At the same time, the peasants were helped by improved irrigation and by legal protection of their landholdings from…

Spain: Franco’s Spain, 1939–75: The Organic Law of 1969 gave the regime a cosmetic constitution, and in 1969 Franco finally recognized Juan Carlos, grandson of Alfonso XIII, as his successor as king and head of state; Juan Carlos’s designation was rejected by the democratic opposition as a continuation of the…

Papua New Guinea: National politics in the 1990s: He initiated both the Organic Law on the Integrity of Political Parties and Candidates (OLIPPAC; passed in 2001)—which sought to bring stability to the notably fluid party affiliations of Papua New Guinea’s politicians—and, in 2002, a preferential voting system designed to improve parliamentary governance. Morauta cut back government services…

architecture: Organic ornament: By the early 20th century a preoccupation with the proper function of architectural ornament was characteristic of many architectural thinkers, and by the mid-20th century a concept of architectural ornament had been formulated that has been called organic ornament. This concept, however, is…

insecticide: Organophosphates: The organophosphates are one of the largest and most versatile classes of insecticides. Two widely used compounds in this class are parathion and malathion; others are Diazinon, naled, methyl parathion, and dichlorvos. They are especially effective against sucking insects such as aphids and mites,…

pigment: Pigments may be organic (i.e., contain carbon) or inorganic. The majority of inorganic pigments are brighter and last longer than organic ones. Organic pigments made from natural sources have been used for centuries, but most pigments used today are either inorganic or synthetic organic ones. Synthetic organic pigments…

estuary: Primary productivity: The high level of plant production in estuaries supports a correspondingly high level of production of invertebrate animals and fish. Estuaries often contain beds of shellfish such as mussels and oysters and large populations of shrimps and crabs. Fish such as plaice and flounders

psychosis: Organic psychoses are characterized by abnormal brain function that is caused by a known physical abnormality, which in most cases is some organic disease of the brain. However, altered brain function that precipitates hallucinations and delusions is more often associated with specific psychiatric disorders, which…

coral reef, ridge or hummock formed in shallow ocean areas by algae and the calcareous skeletons of certain coelenterates, of which coral polyps are the most important. A coral reef may grow into a permanent coral island. Often called the “rainforests of the sea,” coral reefs are home to a

radiation measurement: Timing characteristics: …nanosecond can be obtained using organic scintillators for which the light (that is subsequently converted to charge in a photomultiplier tube) is emitted within a period of several nanoseconds following the deposition of the particle energy. On the other hand, timing measurements from gas-filled detectors may have an imprecision of…

sedimentary rock: Sedimentary structures: Finally, others like stromatolites and organic burrows and tracks, though they may in fact be primary, penecontemporaneous, or even secondary, may be grouped as a fourth category—organic sedimentary structures.

agricultural technology: Essential plant nutrients: …soils is broadly classified as organic and inorganic. Materials of organic origin range from fresh plant tissue to the more or less stable black or brown degradation product (humus) formed by biological decay. The organic matter is a potential source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur; it contains more than 95…

mechanical and organic solidarity: …complex division of labour (organic).

surface coating: Solvents and carrier liquids: In coatings classified as solvent-based, organic solvents are employed to dissolve the polymers and oligomers that will form the final cured coating. In addition, many of the polymers used in coatings have to be synthesized in organic solvents. In these systems, the solubility of the polymer in the solvent is…

Règlement Organique, 19th-century constitution, imposed under a Russian protectorate, that introduced elected political institutions in the principalities of Moldavia and Walachia (later the nucleus of Romania) but also created oligarchies there and vested political and economic power in the boyar

organosulfur compound: Sulfides: Sulfides, in which two organic groups are bonded to a sulfur atom (as in RSR′) are the sulfur analogs of ethers (ROR′). The organic groups, R and R′, may be both alkyl, both aryl, or one of each. If sulfur is simultaneously connected to…

organosulfur compound, a subclass of organic substances that contain sulfur and that are known for their varied occurrence and unusual properties. They are found in diverse locations, including in interstellar space, inside hot acidic volcanoes, and deep within the oceans. Organosulfur compounds

Stephen L. Buchwald: …for his work in organic synthesis.

organic unity, in literature, a structural principle, first discussed by Plato (in Phaedrus, Gorgias, and The Republic) and later described and defined by Aristotle. The principle calls for internally consistent thematic and dramatic development, analogous to biological growth, which is the

agricultural technology: Organic wastes: Organic wastes emanating from municipal sewage, garbage, food-processing industries, pulp mills, and animal enterprises are attacked by aerobic bacteria. When this occurs in water, the oxygen content of the water is depleted or reduced to zero, at which point the anaerobic bacteria complete…

Règlement Organique, 19th-century constitution, imposed under a Russian protectorate, that introduced elected political institutions in the principalities of Moldavia and Walachia (later the nucleus of Romania) but also created oligarchies there and vested political and economic power in the boyar

philosophy of biology: Vitalism and positivism: …to as “holism” or “organicism,” attracted the attention of the British philosophers Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) and Samuel Alexander (1859–1938), who thought that the very order or structure of organisms distinguished them from nonliving things. Others turned to early 20th-century advances in logic and mathematics in an attempt to…

Papua: History: …Indonesian rule, led by the Free Papua Movement (Organisasi Papua Merdeka or OPM), erupted almost immediately. The plebiscite took place in 1969, and, though the results were suspect, the area became the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya. The OPM continued to resist Indonesian rule, and violence broke out periodically. In…

Lazare Carnot was a French statesman, general, military engineer, and administrator in successive governments of the French Revolution. As a leading member of the Committee for General Defense and of the Committee of Public Safety (1793–94) and of the Directory (1793–97), he helped mobilize the

Louis Blanc: Early life: …that his most important work, L’Organisation du travail (“The Organization of Labour”), appeared serially in 1839. The principles laid down in that essay, which first brought him to public attention, formed the basis of his subsequent career.

CERN, international scientific organization established for the purpose of collaborative research into high-energy particle physics. Founded in 1954, the organization maintains its headquarters near Geneva and operates expressly for research of a “pure scientific and fundamental character.” Article

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), international organization established by the Chemical Weapons Convention (adopted 1992, entered into force 1997) to implement and enforce the terms of the international treaty, which prohibits the use, stockpiling, or transfer of

Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), international organization founded in 1970 as the Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique (ACCT; Agency of Cultural and Technical Cooperation), representing French-speaking countries. The OIF was created so as to facilitate cooperation

Weimar Republic: Political disturbances at home: …recruited gangs like the notorious Organisation Konsul which assassinated, among others, Matthias Erzberger (August 26, 1921) and Walther Rathenau (June 24, 1922). One of the most disturbing features was the marked leniency shown by the courts toward political terrorism when practiced by the right.

International Maritime Organization (IMO), United Nations (UN) specialized agency created to develop international treaties and other mechanisms on maritime safety; to discourage discriminatory and restrictive practices in international trade and unfair practices by shipping concerns; and to reduce

World Meteorological Organization (WMO), specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) created to promote the establishment of a worldwide meteorological observation system, the application of meteorology to other fields, and the development of national meteorological services in less-developed

World Health Organization (WHO), specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) established in 1948 to further international cooperation for improved public health conditions. Although it inherited specific tasks relating to epidemic control, quarantine measures, and drug standardization from the

agricultural sciences: Liebig’s contribution: …auf Agrikulturchemie und Physiologie (1840; Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology), launched the systematic development of the agricultural sciences. In Europe, a system of agricultural education soon developed that comprised secondary and postsecondary instruction. The old empirical-training centres were replaced by agricultural schools throughout Europe and North…

chemical compound: Organic compounds: …that can be described as living have a crucial dependence on organic compounds. Foodstuffs—namely, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates—are organic compounds, as are such vital substances as hemoglobin, chlorophyll, enzymes, hormones, and vitamins.

multicellular organism, an organism composed of many cells, which are to varying degrees integrated and independent. The development of multicellular organisms is accompanied by cellular specialization and division of labour; cells become efficient in one process and are dependent upon other cells

biology: …in a field known as organismic biology; that area of research remains an important component of the biological sciences. Population biology deals with groups or populations of organisms that inhabit a given area or region. Included at that level are studies of the roles that specific kinds of plants and…

philosophy of biology: Levels of selection: In contrast, “organismic selection,” as it may be called, refers to the successes and failures at the level of the organism. Both genic and organismic selection are instances of individual selection, but the former refers to the “replicators”—the carriers of heredity—and the latter to the “vehicles”—the entities…

angiosperm: Distribution and abundance: …and their almost complete worldwide distribution. The only area without angiosperms is the southern region of the Antarctic continent, although two angiosperm groups are found in the islands off that continent. Angiosperms dominate terrestrial vegetation, particularly in the tropics, although submerged and floating aquatic angiosperms do exist throughout the world.…

keyboard instrument: Evolution from early forms: …were certainly used on the organistrum, a large medieval hurdy-gurdy operated by two players: one turned a crank rotating a wheel that rubbed against one or more strings to make them sound, while the other produced different notes by turning the key-shaped levers that stopped the strings at various points…

Organization of Central American States, international organization formed in 1951 to reestablish regional unity in Central America. Member states are Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The organization includes executive, legislative, and economic councils and the Central

El Salvador: Military dictatorships: …oversaw the formation of the Democratic Nationalist Organization (Organización Democrática Nacionalista; ORDEN), a large, secretive, and predominantly rural paramilitary organization.

Inter-American Regional Organization of Workers, Latin-American labour union federation that was established in 1951 as a regional organization for the Latin-American members of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, which had been founded in 1949 primarily by the American F

authority: Authority as a psychological question: …key psychological underpinnings of complex organizations. For example, the reason companies adopt hierarchies rather than leaving every corporate practice or decision to be worked out by ad hoc means is that it is more efficient and less costly for a person to obey a superior rather than engaging in constant…

public administration: Responses to incrementalism: …a concept known as “organization development.” Its primary goal was to change the attitudes, values, and structures of organizations so that they could meet new demands. Trained consultants, usually from outside the organization, undertook intensive interviewing of senior and junior staff, and sensitivity training and confrontation meetings were also…

Organization of American States (OAS), organization formed to promote economic, military, and cultural cooperation among its members, which include almost all of the independent states of the Western Hemisphere. The OAS’s main goals are to prevent any outside state’s intervention in the Western

artificial intelligence: Symbolic vs. connectionist approaches: In The Organization of Behavior (1949), Donald Hebb, a psychologist at McGill University, Montreal, suggested that learning specifically involves strengthening certain patterns of neural activity by increasing the probability (weight) of induced neuron firing between the associated connections.

Louis Blanc: Early life: …that his most important work, L’Organisation du travail (“The Organization of Labour”), appeared serially in 1839. The principles laid down in that essay, which first brought him to public attention, formed the basis of his subsequent career.

Organization of Pan Asian American Women, oldest public-policy organization devoted to concerns of Asian Pacific-American women, founded in 1976 to increase participation of Asian women in policy-making and leadership roles. It also serves as a national network for Asian Pacific-American women and

Hoover Commission, (1947–49, 1953–55), either of two temporary advisory bodies, both headed by the former president Herbert Hoover. They were appointed to find ways to reduce the number of federal government departments and increase their efficiency in the post-World War II and post-Korean War

organization theory, a large and multidisciplinary body of scholarly work that focuses on understanding organizations. Most of the work in organization theory has been written by scholars in the disciplines of sociology, business management, and economics. They have focused most of their attention

Maulana Karenga: US and Kwanzaa: …“us Blacks”; now known as Organization Us), whose purpose is to encourage cultural and social change and Black unity. Karenga formed a doctrine, which he named Kawaida (a Swahili word that can be used to denote custom or tradition), for the organization. One aspect of Kawaida was a value system…

Sidney Poitier: Hollywood trailblazer: …Me Mister Tibbs! (1970) and The Organization (1971). Poitier’s other movie from 1967 was Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, in which he portrayed the fiancé of a white woman (Katharine Houghton) who takes him home to meet her liberal parents (Spencer Tracy, in his last film, and Katharine Hepburn). The…

organizational analysis, in management science, the study of the processes that characterize all kinds of organizations, including business firms, government agencies, labour unions, and voluntary associations such as sports clubs, charities, and political parties. Any organization is a social unit

Soviet Union: The Bolshevik dictatorship: …entrusted to the Secretariat, the Organizational Bureau (Orgburo), and the Political Bureau (Politburo). The Secretariat and Orgburo dealt largely with personnel matters, while the Politburo combined legislative and executive powers.

public administration: Responses to incrementalism: …a concept known as “organization development.” Its primary goal was to change the attitudes, values, and structures of organizations so that they could meet new demands. Trained consultants, usually from outside the organization, undertook intensive interviewing of senior and junior staff, and sensitivity training and confrontation meetings were also…

corporate crime, type of white-collar crime committed by individuals within their legitimate occupations, for the benefit of their employing organization. Such individuals generally do not think of themselves as criminals, nor do they consider their activities criminal. Related to corporate crime

organizational culture, conventionally defined as the ensemble of beliefs, assumptions, values, norms, artifacts, symbols, actions, and language patterns shared by all members of an organization. In this view, culture is thought to be an acquired body of knowledge whose interpretation and

organizational analysis: Challenges to contingency theory: The second major environmentalist school, organizational ecology, builds on parallels with bioecology and evolution—especially in its application of notions such as selection and adaptation to organizational change. This approach follows the lead of institutionalists such as Selznick in assuming that the core features of an organization (those that shape its…

industrial relations, the behaviour of workers in organizations in which they earn their living. Scholars of industrial relations attempt to explain variations in the conditions of work, the degree and nature of worker participation in decision making, the role of labour unions and other forms of

institutionalism: Mid-20th-century American institutionalism: …sociology with the emergence of organizational science (OS), which was a response to the rapid growth in the size of firms starting in the 1860s. The earliest and most influential figure was Chester Irving Barnard, who in the 1930s argued that an organization is a complex system of cooperation and…

organizational analysis: Special topics: …theory, Thompson’s thesis, published in Organizations in Action (1967), holds that good organizational designs are those that buffer core technologies from disturbances, such as interruptions in scheduling or inventory shortages.

collective violence: Defining collective violence: Organized collective violence is planned violent behaviour. It is also unauthorized or unofficial and lacks government approval. Lynching is an example of organized collective violence. Institutional collective violence is carried out under the direction of legally constituted officials. Examples include a country fighting a war,…

organized crime, complex of highly centralized enterprises set up for the purpose of engaging in illegal activities. Such organizations engage in offenses such as cargo theft, fraud, robbery, kidnapping for ransom, and the demanding of “protection” payments. The principal source of income for these

organized labour, association and activities of workers in a trade or industry for the purpose of obtaining or assuring improvements in working conditions through their collective action. British trade unionism has a long and continuous history. Medieval guilds, which regulated craft production,

law of war: Lawful combatants: …required what is called an organized resistance movement to possess four characteristics before its members could be treated as prisoners of war upon capture. These were: (1) being commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates, (2) having a fixed and distinctive sign recognizable at a distance, (3) carrying arms…

thunderstorm: Updrafts and downdrafts: The strongest updrafts occur in organized storms that are many tens of kilometres in diameter, and lines or zones of such storms can extend for hundreds of kilometres.

American Federation of Labor (AFL), federation of North American labour unions that was founded in 1886 under the leadership of Samuel Gompers as the successor to the Federation of Organized Trades (1881), which had replaced the Knights of Labor (KOL) as the most powerful industrial union of the

Lazare Carnot was a French statesman, general, military engineer, and administrator in successive governments of the French Revolution. As a leading member of the Committee for General Defense and of the Committee of Public Safety (1793–94) and of the Directory (1793–97), he helped mobilize the

Olympic Games: National Olympic committees, international federations, and organizing committees: …Games to a city, an organizing committee for the Olympic Games (OCOG) replaces the successful bid committee, often including many of that committee’s members. Although the IOC retains ultimate authority over all aspects of an Olympiad, the local OCOG has full responsibility for the festival, including finance, facilities, staffing, and…

Herbert Charles Brown: Early life and education: …of a lifetime’s devotion to organoborane chemistry. (Boron-hydrogen compounds and their derivatives are known as borane.) Postdoctoral study of the chlorosulfonation of alkanes (hydrocarbon compounds with only single molecular bonds) may likewise be seen as the genesis of his almost equally long devotion to physical organic chemistry.

organogenesis, in embryology, the series of organized integrated processes that transforms an amorphous mass of cells into a complete organ in the developing embryo. The cells of an organ-forming region undergo differential development and movement to form an organ primordium, or anlage.

Karl von Goebel: …whose Organographie der Pflanzen (1898–1901; Organography of Plants, 1900–05) clarified the principles of the science of plant morphology in relation to form and structure.

Karl von Goebel: …whose Organographie der Pflanzen (1898–1901; Organography of Plants, 1900–05) clarified the principles of the science of plant morphology in relation to form and structure.

organohalogen compound, any of a class of organic compounds that contain at least one halogen (fluorine [F], chlorine [Cl], bromine [Br], or iodine [I]) bonded to carbon. They are subdivided into alkyl, vinylic, aryl, and acyl halides. In alkyl halides (also called haloalkanes) all four bonds to

alcohol: Using Grignard and organolithium reagents: Grignard and organolithium reagents are powerful tools for organic synthesis, and the most common products of their reactions are alcohols. A Grignard reagent is formed by reaction of an alkyl halide (RX, where X is a halogen) with magnesium metal (Mg) in an…

organometallic compound, any member of a class of substances containing at least one metal-to-carbon bond in which the carbon is part of an organic group. Organometallic compounds constitute a very large group of substances that have played a major role in the development of the science of

Aristotle: Syllogistic: …a collection known as the Organon, or “tool” of thought.

Samuel Hahnemann: ” His chief work, Organon der rationellen Heilkunst (1810; “Organon of Rational Medicine”), contains an exposition of his system, which he called Homöopathie, or homeopathy. His Reine Arzneimittellehre, 6 vol. (1811; “Pure Pharmacology”), detailed the symptoms produced by “proving” a large number of drugs—i.e., by systematically administering them to…

insecticide: Organophosphates: The organophosphates are one of the largest and most versatile classes of insecticides. Two widely used compounds in this class are parathion and malathion; others are Diazinon, naled, methyl parathion, and dichlorvos. They are especially effective against sucking insects such as aphids and mites,…

insecticide: Organophosphates: The organophosphates are one of the largest and most versatile classes of insecticides. Two widely used compounds in this class are parathion and malathion; others are Diazinon, naled, methyl parathion, and dichlorvos. They are especially effective against sucking insects such as aphids and mites,…

Cordillera de Guaniguanico: …comprises the Sierra de los Órganos and the Sierra del Rosario, which rises 2,293 ft (699 m) at El Pan de Guajaibón. The Sierra del Rosario exhibits a multitude of knolls formed of different rock materials, whereas steep limestone cones tower in the Sierra de los Órganos. Extensive pine and…

organosulfur compound, a subclass of organic substances that contain sulfur and that are known for their varied occurrence and unusual properties. They are found in diverse locations, including in interstellar space, inside hot acidic volcanoes, and deep within the oceans. Organosulfur compounds

organosulfur compound, a subclass of organic substances that contain sulfur and that are known for their varied occurrence and unusual properties. They are found in diverse locations, including in interstellar space, inside hot acidic volcanoes, and deep within the oceans. Organosulfur compounds

Unani medicine: Modes of treatment: …Unani therapy is ilaj-bi-misla, or organotherapy, a mode of treatment that involves healing a diseased organ with the use of tissue extracts from the same organ of a healthy animal. Ilaj-bi-dawa, or pharmacotherapy, is the use of medicines by Unani hakims. This treatment method is considered by hakims to be…

organometallic compound: Importance of organometallic compounds: A large number of organotin compounds, for example, are used as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride, and fire retardants. Methylmercury has caused severe pollution problems as a result of its toxicity. This fact has led to stringent controls on the discharge of mercury from chemical plants into rivers,…

John F. Hartwig: He is the author of Organotransition Metal Chemistry: From Bonding to Catalysis (2010).

nutrition: Nutritional patterns in the living world: …if organic, the organism is organotrophic.

nutrition: Nutritional patterns in the living world: …if organic, the organism is organotrophic.

Louis de Saint-Just: Early years: …first book, an epic poem, Organt. It was ignored by the public. A long satirical and licentious poem strewn with political allusions, it was reminiscent of Voltaire’s “La Pucelle d’Orléans” (“The Maid of Orleans”), but it lacked the force and spirit needed for public acclaim. Perhaps Saint-Just was trying to…

organum, originally, any musical instrument (later in particular an organ); the term attained its lasting sense, however, during the Middle Ages in reference to a polyphonic (many-voiced) setting, in certain specific styles, of Gregorian chant. In its earliest written form, found in the treatise

Western music: Development of polyphony: This new style was called organum purum.

human nervous system: Vasopressin and cardiovascular regulation: …of the areas, called the organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis, lies in the third ventricle and is involved in osmo- and sodium regulation. Another circumventricular organ, called the subfornical organ, lies in the dorsal part of the third ventricle; it is particularly sensitive to hormones such as angiotensin II…

Brazil: Brazilian Highlands: …is also known as the Serra dos Orgãos, it presents an almost sheer face to the sea and creates the outcrops of Sugar Loaf (Pão de Açúcar) and Gávea and a string of small islands. The Serra da Mantiqueira, located just north of the Serra do Mar but still somewhat…

Brazil: Brazilian Highlands: …is also known as the Serra dos Orgãos, it presents an almost sheer face to the sea and creates the outcrops of Sugar Loaf (Pão de Açúcar) and Gávea and a string of small islands. The Serra da Mantiqueira, located just north of the Serra do Mar but still somewhat…

orgasm, climactic physiological state of heightened sexual excitement and gratification that is followed by relaxation of sexual tensions and the body’s muscles. Orgasm is marked by a feeling of sudden and intense pleasure, an abrupt increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the

electronic organ: In 1934 the Orgatron was introduced by Frederick Albert Hoschke; in this organ, tone was generated by reeds that vibrated by electrically fan-blown air, with the vibrations picked up electrostatically and amplified.

Soviet Union: The Bolshevik dictatorship: …entrusted to the Secretariat, the Organizational Bureau (Orgburo), and the Political Bureau (Politburo). The Secretariat and Orgburo dealt largely with personnel matters, while the Politburo combined legislative and executive powers.

Wilhelm Reich: …an attempt to measure “orgones,” units of cosmic energy Reich believed energized the nervous system. Through his study of human behaviour, particularly the libido, the instinctual physiological or psychic energy associated with sexual urges, Reich came to believe in the existence of an energetic life force that he termed…

Wilhelm Reich: …the Orgone Energy Accumulator, or orgone box, which he claimed captured and preserved orgone energy in the atmosphere. He later leased orgone boxes as a therapy for many illnesses, including cancer.