human genetic disease: Estimating probability: Bayes’s theorem: …of all joint probabilities, the posterior probability is arrived at. Posterior probability is the likelihood that the individual, whose genotype is uncertain, either carries the mutant gene or does not. One example application of this method, applied to the sex-linked recessive disease Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), is given below.

human ear: Semicircular canals: position: superior, horizontal, and posterior. The superior and posterior canals are in diagonal vertical planes that intersect at right angles. Each canal has an expanded end, the ampulla, which opens into the vestibule. The ampullae of the horizontal and superior canals lie close together, just above the oval window,…

Wernicke area, region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech. This area was first described in 1874 by German neurologist Carl Wernicke. The Wernicke area is located in the posterior third of the upper temporal convolution of the left hemisphere of the

uveitis: Anatomical forms of uveitis: …portion of the eye); and posterior uveitis refers to inflammation of the retina, choroid, or the optic disk (where the optic nerve enters the retina). Diffuse uveitis (panuveitis) implies inflammation of the entire uveal tract.

human nervous system: Vagus nerve (CN X or 10): …colon converge to form the posterior (right) and anterior (left) vagal nerves. Right and left vagal nerves are joined in the thorax by cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal branches. In addition, general visceral afferent fibers from the larynx below the vocal folds join the vagus via the recurrent laryngeal nerves, while…

animal development: Circulatory organs: The postcaval vein, present in terrestrial vertebrates, is a late acquisition, both in evolution and in embryogenesis; it is a result of the intercommunication of several venous channels, including the anterior portion of the vitelline veins.

Petrarch: Later years (1353–74) of Petrarch: …added new sections to his Posteritati, an autobiographical letter to posterity that was to have formed the conclusion to his Seniles; he also composed the final sections of the Trionfi. Petrarch died in 1374 while working in his study at Arquà and was found the next morning, his head resting…

broadcasting: Pirate and offshore stations: …of competition from the so-called postes périphériques, which include Europe No. 1 in the Saar and Radio Andorra in the Pyrenees, not to mention the French-language broadcasts of Monaco, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. The strongest competition came from Europe No. 1, in which the French government finally purchased a controlling…

PostScript: PostScript uses postfix, also called reverse Polish notation, in which an operation name follows its arguments. Thus, “300 600 20 270 arc stroke” means: draw (“stroke”) a 270-degree arc with radius 20 at location (300, 600). Although PostScript can be read and written by a programmer, it…

human nervous system: The peripheral nervous system: These postganglionic cells, in turn, send their processes to visceral structures.

human nervous system: The autonomic nervous system: …set, called ganglion cells or postganglionic neurons, lies outside the central nervous system in collections of nerve cells called autonomic ganglia. Parasympathetic ganglia tend to lie close to or within the organs or tissues that their neurons innervate, whereas sympathetic ganglia are located at more distant sites from their target…

legal glossator: …14th century, the commentators or postglossators, to effect a closer liaison between the revived Roman law and the law of the Italian cities and to find a way to apply Roman law to the practical legal needs of the day.

Quintus Smyrnaeus: …the city (and hence called Ta met’ Homeron or Posthomerica).

science fiction: High technologies: Biologically altered “posthumans” are becoming an SF staple. First visualized as menacing monsters or Nietzschean supermen, the genetically altered were increasingly seen as people with unconventional personal problems.

The Pickwick Papers, novel by Charles Dickens, first published serially from 1836 to 1837 under the pseudonym Boz and in book form in 1837. This first fictional work by Dickens was originally commissioned as a series of glorified captions for the work of caricaturist Robert Seymour. His witty,

Cymbeline: …Imogen is secretly married to Posthumus, he banishes Posthumus, who heads for Rome. In a conversation with a villainous Italian, Iachimo, Posthumus finds himself drawn unwisely into betting Iachimo that Imogen’s fidelity to her marriage is unassailable. Journeying to England, Iachimo furtively obtains from the sleeping Imogen a token that…

Cymbeline: …Imogen is secretly married to Posthumus, he banishes Posthumus, who heads for Rome. In a conversation with a villainous Italian, Iachimo, Posthumus finds himself drawn unwisely into betting Iachimo that Imogen’s fidelity to her marriage is unassailable. Journeying to England, Iachimo furtively obtains from the sleeping Imogen a token that…

hypnosis: Applications of hypnosis: This “posthypnotic amnesia” can result either spontaneously from deep hypnosis or from a suggestion by the hypnotist while the subject is in a trance state. The amnesia may include all the events of the trance state or only selected items, or it may be manifested in…

hypnosis: Applications of hypnosis: …hypnotic trance is that of posthypnotic suggestion and behaviour; that is, the subject’s execution, at some later time, of instructions and suggestions that were given to him while he was in a trance. With adequate amnesia induced during the trance state, the individual will not be aware of the source…

dress: Ancient Egypt: …a metal false beard, or postiche, which was a sign of sovereignty, was worn by royalty. This was held in place by a ribbon tied over the head and attached to a gold chin strap, a fashion existing from about 3000 to 1580 bce.

Nicholas Of Lyra: …work is his monumental 50-volume Postillae perpetuae in universam S. Scripturam (“Commentary Notes to the Universal Holy Scripture”), a commentary on the whole Bible that became a leading manual of exegesis. The importance of the Postillae lies in its emphasis on a literal, rather than a mystical or an allegorical,…

postindustrial society, society marked by a transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy, a transition that is also connected with subsequent societal restructuring. Postindustrialization is the next evolutionary step from an industrialized society and is most evident in

trot: This latter action, termed posting, reduces the impact of the trot on rider and horse. Trotters are also tried in harness racing.

Google: Gmail: In 2007 the company acquired Postini, an e-mail services firm, for $625 million in order to improve Gmail’s security, especially in Google’s efforts to sign up businesses. In 2009 Google removed the beta status of Gmail, increasing its appeal to business users.

Antonio Skármeta: …Italian film Il postino (The Postman), which was nominated for five Academy Awards, including best picture. The novel was adapted into a film again in 2022.

Linz: …the left bank beneath the Pöstling Hill (1,768 feet [539 metres]).

The Postman Always Rings Twice, American film noir, released in 1946, based on the crime novel of the same name by James M. Cain. The film features all the elements of an enduring noir classic: sexy leading players, tight script and direction, and a shocking climax. Frank Chambers (played by John

The Postman Always Rings Twice, novel by American master of hard-boiled fiction James M. Cain, published in 1934. It was adapted as a classic 1946 film, starring John Garfield and Lana Turner, and again as a 1981 film, starring Jack Nicholson and Jessica Lange. The Postman Always Rings Twice is

Bob Rafelson: Films of the mid-1970s to mid-1980s: …Mamet wrote the screenplay for The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981), Rafelson’s remake (as director and coproducer) of the film noir classic from 1946. Many critics found Nicholson and Jessica Lange less compelling in the lead roles than John Garfield and Lana Turner had been in the original, and the…

collective behavior: Rumor-creating situations: Allport and Leo Postman offered the generalization that rumor intensity is high when both the interest in an event and its ambiguity are great. The U.S. sociologist Tamotsu Shibutani agreed, contending that rumor abounds when the demand for news is greater than is the supply provided through…

Neil Postman was an American educator, media theorist, and social critic who made contributions to the discipline of media studies, the critical analysis of technology, and the philosophy of education. He is best known for his social critique of mass communication, especially television, with

Antonio Skármeta: …Italian film Il postino (The Postman), which was nominated for five Academy Awards, including best picture. The novel was adapted into a film again in 2022.

Kevin Costner: Dances with Wolves and The Bodyguard: …the postapocalyptic Waterworld (1995) and The Postman (1997), the latter of which he also directed; and the sports-themed Tin Cup (1996) and For Love of the Game (1999).

pharmaceutical industry: Postmarketing adverse drug events: Although there may have been several thousand patients enrolled in Phase 1, 2, and 3 clinical trials, some adverse drug events may not be identified before the drug is marketed. For example, if 3,000 patients participated in the clinical trials and…

postmaterialism, value orientation that emphasizes self-expression and quality of life over economic and physical security. The term postmaterialism was first coined by American social scientist Ronald Inglehart in The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics

postmature birth, in humans, any birth that occurs more than 42 weeks after conception, at which time placental transfer begins to fail and the fetus receives decreased amounts of oxygen and nutrients. If birth does not occur naturally or is not induced, the fetus will die. Postmature newborns are

eschatology: Later progressive millennialism: In a sense, premillennialism and postmillennialism have coexisted since the earliest church, each succeeding the other in the aftermath of its disappointed apocalyptic hopes. Thus, after the triumph of postmillennialism in the mid-19th century, premillennialism came to the fore at the end of the century. The rise of postmillennial optimism…

Martin Puryear: …and wire are associated with Postminimalism.

Jean-François Lyotard: …best-known and most influential work, The Postmodern Condition (1979), Lyotard characterized the postmodern era as one that has lost faith in all grand, totalizing “metanarratives”—the abstract ideas in terms of which thinkers since the time of the Enlightenment have attempted to construct comprehensive explanations of historical experience. Disillusioned with the…

United States: The visual arts and postmodernism: …the idea of the “postmodern,” and in no sphere has the argument been as lively as in that of the plastic arts. The idea of the postmodern has been powerful in the United States exactly because the idea of the modern was so powerful; where Europe has struggled with…

postmodernism, in Western philosophy, a late 20th-century movement characterized by broad skepticism, subjectivism, or relativism; a general suspicion of reason; and an acute sensitivity to the role of ideology in asserting and maintaining political and economic power. This article discusses

crustacean: Exoskeleton: (3) Metecdysis, or postmolt, is the stage in which the soft cuticle gradually hardens and becomes calcified. At the end of this stage the cuticle is complete. (4) Intermolt is a period of variable duration, from a few days in small forms to a year or…

autopsy, dissection and examination of a dead body and its organs and structures. An autopsy may be performed to determine the cause of death, to observe the effects of disease, and to establish the evolution and mechanisms of disease processes. The word autopsy is derived from the Greek autopsia,

Patricia Cornwell: …as a medical examiner in Postmortem (1990), and with this book Cornwell’s writing career was launched. The series continued with such books as Body of Evidence (1991), All That Remains (1992), Cause of Death (1996), Black Notice (1999), Blow Fly (2003), Book of the Dead (2007), Scarpetta (2008), The Scarpetta…

autopsy, dissection and examination of a dead body and its organs and structures. An autopsy may be performed to determine the cause of death, to observe the effects of disease, and to establish the evolution and mechanisms of disease processes. The word autopsy is derived from the Greek autopsia,

meat processing: Antemortem and postmortem inspection: Postmortem inspection of the head, viscera, and carcasses helps to identify whole carcasses, individual parts, or organs that are not wholesome or safe for human consumption.

meat processing: Postmortem muscle: Once the life of an animal ends, the life-sustaining processes slowly cease, causing significant changes in the postmortem (after death) muscle. These changes represent the conversion of muscle to meat.

medicine: Family health care: Postnatal care services are designed to supervise the return to normal of the mother. They are usually given by the staff of the same unit that was responsible for the delivery. Important considerations are the matter of breast- or artificial feeding and the care of…

postpartum depression, depressive disorder sometimes occurring in mothers following childbirth (parturition). Postpartum depression is associated with various risk factors and can have serious consequences for affected women and their infants. Mothers affected by postpartum depression may, for

human development: Types and rates of human growth: The later fetal and the postnatal growth of the muscle consists chiefly of building up the cytoplasm of the muscle cells; salts are incorporated and the contractile proteins formed. The cells become bigger, the intercellular substance largely disappears, and the concentration of water decreases. This process continues quite actively up…

nation-state: Minorities’ challenge to nation-based citizenship: …scholars call this phenomenon “postnational citizenship”).

Postojna, city, western Slovenia, on the Pivka River northeast of Trieste (Italy). Long a local market centre, it is on the rail line and road from Trieste to Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. Its prime importance is as a tourist centre for its Postojna Cave, an internationally famous cave system

Postojna: …a tourist centre for its Postojna Cave, an internationally famous cave system considered to be Europe’s best example of karst phenomena—heavily and irregularly eroded limestone structures and underground streams. References to the town date from the 13th century, and it became a borough in 1432. It became a city in…

surgery: Present-day surgery: Preoperative and postoperative care both have the same object: to restore patients to as near their normal physiologic state as possible. Blood transfusions, intravenous administration of fluids, and the use of measures to prevent common complications such as lung infection and blood clotting in the legs are…

postpartum depression, depressive disorder sometimes occurring in mothers following childbirth (parturition). Postpartum depression is associated with various risk factors and can have serious consequences for affected women and their infants. Mothers affected by postpartum depression may, for

midwifery: childbirth (parturition), and the postpartum period that often also includes care of the newborn.

Sheehan’s syndrome, insufficiency of pituitary hormones (hypopituitarism), caused by destruction of cells of the anterior pituitary gland by oxygen starvation, usually at the time of childbirth. The condition may also result from septic shock, burn shock, or a massive hemorrhage. Once the most

Austronesian languages: Phonetic types: …what might be called “postploded” nasals /-mb-/, /-nd-/, or /-ngg-/, in which a nasal consonant between vowels is followed by a stop that is almost too short to hear.

Turkic languages: Morphology: Postpositions, corresponding to English prepositions, are placed after the words they mark functionally—e.g., Turkish benden sonra ‘after me’ (literally ‘I-from after’), ev(in) önünde ‘in front of the house’ (literally ‘house-of front-its-at’). Conjunctions are used less frequently in Turkic languages than in English, and they are…

glucose tolerance test: …screening test is the 2-hour postprandial blood glucose test. This test is performed 2 hours after intake of a standard glucose solution or a meal containing 100 grams of carbohydrates. A plasma glucose level above 140 mg/100 ml indicates the need for a glucose tolerance test.

human behaviour: Physiological aspects: The phase of postpubescence starts when pubic hair growth is complete, a deceleration of growth in height occurs, changes in the primary and secondary sexual characteristics are essentially complete, and the person is fertile. Some changes in primary and secondary sexual characteristics occur in this phase. For instance,…

punk: Postpunk groups such as Public Image Ltd and Joy Division replaced punk’s worldliness with inner concerns, matching rock with the technological rhythms of disco. Nevertheless, punk’s influence could be seen throughout British society, notably in mass media shock tactics, the confrontational strategies of environmentalists, and…

DNA repair: Postreplication repair occurs downstream of the lesion, because replication is blocked at the actual site of damage. In order for replication to occur, short segments of DNA called Okazaki fragments are synthesized. The gap left at the damaged site is filled in through recombination repair,…

Postromantic music, musical style typical of the last decades of the 19th century and first decades of the 20th century and characterized by exaggeration of certain elements of the musical Romanticism of the 19th century. Postromanticism exhibits extreme largeness of scope and design, a mixture of

postal system: France: …the farming system, a general Directorate of Posts attached to the Ministry of Finance was created in 1804. During the 19th century, the service developed to keep pace with the Industrial Revolution, notably through improvements in administration and transportation. The first French postage stamp was issued on January 1, 1849,…

PostScript, a page-description language developed in the early 1980s by Adobe Systems Incorporated on the basis of work at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center). Such languages describe documents in terms that can be interpreted by a personal computer in order to display the document on its screen

American football: Bowl games: In the 1920s and ’30s colleges and universities throughout the Midwest, South, and West, in alliance with local civic and business elites, launched campaigns to gain national recognition and economic growth through their football teams. They organized regional conferences—the Big Ten and the…

higher education, any of various types of education given in postsecondary institutions of learning and usually affording, at the end of a course of study, a named degree, diploma, or certificate of higher studies. Higher-educational institutions include not only universities and colleges but also

poststructuralism, movement in literary criticism and philosophy begun in France in the late 1960s. Drawing upon the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure, the anthropology of Claude Lévi-Strauss (see structuralism), and the deconstructionist theories of Jacques Derrida (see deconstruction),

postsynaptic potential (PSP), a temporary change in the electric polarization of the membrane of a nerve cell (neuron). The result of chemical transmission of a nerve impulse at the synapse (neuronal junction), the postsynaptic potential can lead to the firing of a new impulse. When an impulse

dubbing, in filmmaking, the process of adding new dialogue or other sounds to the sound track of a motion picture that has already been shot. Dubbing is most familiar to audiences as a means of translating foreign-language films into the audience’s language. When a foreign language is dubbed, the

bridge: Concrete: A typical process, called post-tensioned prestressing, involves casting concrete beams with longitudinal holes for steel tendons—cables or bars—like reinforced concrete, but the holes for the tendons are curved upward from end to end, and the tendons, once fitted inside, are stretched and then anchored at the ends. The tendons,…

axiom: …listed in two categories, as postulates and as common notions. The former are principles of geometry and seem to have been thought of as required assumptions because their statement opened with “let there be demanded” (ētesthō). The common notions are evidently the same as what were termed “axioms” by Aristotle,…

General Foods Corporation, former American manufacturer of packaged grocery and meat products. Since 1989, General Foods product lines have been sold by Kraft Foods Inc. The company was incorporated in 1922, having developed from the earlier Postum Cereal Co. Ltd., founded by C.W. Post (1854–1914)

Postojna, city, western Slovenia, on the Pivka River northeast of Trieste (Italy). Long a local market centre, it is on the rail line and road from Trieste to Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. Its prime importance is as a tourist centre for its Postojna Cave, an internationally famous cave system

Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman general who, by setting himself up as an independent emperor in Gaul about 258–268, became a rival to the emperor Gallienus. Postumus and another general, Silvanus, stayed behind in Colonia (Cologne) with Gallienus’ son Saloninus after the emperor had

Luis Carlos López: …villorio (1908; “Of My Village”), Posturas dificiles (1909; “Difficult Situations”), and Por el atajo (1928; “For the Short-Cut”).

African dance: Dance posture: There are three characteristic dance postures. An upright posture with a straight back is used as an expression of authority in the dance of chiefs and priests. In the second posture the dancer inclines forward from the hips, moving his attention and gestures toward…

Jean Rhys: …followed by such novels as Postures (1928), After Leaving Mr. Mackenzie (1931), Voyage in the Dark (1934), and Good Morning, Midnight (1939).

Paleo-Siberian languages: Phonological features: …of the Paleo-Siberian languages are postvelar consonants (i.e., sounds that are formed farther back in the mouth than /k/ and usually represented as q), vowel harmony of various kinds (e.g., the alternation of e and i in the form for ‘my’ in Nivkh ñe-řla ‘my harpoon’ and ñi-řly ‘my sky’),…

Lincoln, city, seat (1853) of Logan county, central Illinois, U.S. It lies about 30 miles (50 km) northeast of Springfield. Founded in 1853, the city was named for Abraham Lincoln, then a Springfield attorney, who handled the legalities of its founding and christened it with the juice of a

myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), condition characterized by persistent debilitating fatigue that has no identifiable cause. ME/CFS is a remarkably complex illness and remains incompletely understood. These factors complicate its accurate diagnosis and have raised

Piešt’any, town, southwestern Slovakia, on the Váh River, approximately 48 miles (77 km) northeast of Bratislava. Piešt’any is a Carpathian health resort, known since the Middle Ages for its warm sulfur springs and mud baths. It has specialized since the 16th century in treating rheumatic and

Ukraine: Russification: …was joined in 1933 by Pavel Postyshev as second secretary, who was sent from Moscow with a large contingent of Russian cadres. A series of purges from 1929 to 1934 largely eliminated from the party the generation of revolutionaries, supporters of Ukrainization, and those who questioned the excesses of collectivization.…

Krasnoarmiysk, city, eastern Ukraine. It is an old coal-mining centre of the Donets Basin coalfield, and mining began there in 1884. Other industries have included railway servicing and the production of construction materials. It is the centre of a significant agricultural area. Pop. (2001)

snake: Vertebrae: …at two projections (prezygapophyses and postzygapophyses) from the centra, with articulating surfaces that lie above and below; and finally the zygosphenes and zygantra, found almost exclusively in snakes, the zygosphene being a projecting shelf on the upper part of the vertebra and the zygantrum being a pocket into which the…

evolution: Reproductive isolation: …take effect before fertilization, and postzygotic, those that take effect afterward. Prezygotic RIMs prevent the formation of hybrids between members of different populations through ecological, temporal, ethological (behavioral), mechanical, and gametic isolation. Postzygotic RIMs reduce the viability or fertility of hybrids or their progeny.

evolution: Reproductive isolation: …take effect before fertilization, and postzygotic, those that take effect afterward. Prezygotic RIMs prevent the formation of hybrids between members of different populations through ecological, temporal, ethological (behavioral), mechanical, and gametic isolation. Postzygotic RIMs reduce the viability or fertility of hybrids or their progeny.

nosegay, small, hand-held bouquet popular in mid- 19th-century Victorian England as an accessory carried by fashionable ladies. Composed of mixed flowers and herbs and edged with a paper frill or greens, the arrangement was sometimes inserted into a silver filigree holder. When supplied by an

ring: …effigy of a deceased person; posy rings, upon which were engraved an inscription or a few lines of verse; occult rings, which functioned as talismans or amulets and were supposed to have magical powers; and poison rings, whose hollow bezels contained a poison for purposes of suicide or homicide. Rings…

marijuana, crude drug composed of the leaves and flowers of plants in the genus Cannabis. The term marijuana is sometimes used interchangeably with cannabis; however, the latter refers specifically to the plant genus, which comprises C. sativa and, by some classifications, C. indica and C.

cottage cheese: …soft fresh cheese, usually called pot cheese, is produced in the same manner, but the curds are strained to remove most of the whey; thus, it is drier and less creamy than cottage cheese. The name pot cheese is sometimes used to refer to cottage cheese.

industrial glass: Glass melting: …brought in the development of pot furnaces, which have remained almost unchanged even to this day. The pot furnaces were made of a plastic mixture of raw clay mixed well to remove bubbles. The pot floor was made first, before the sidewalls and the cover with a side opening were…

military technology: Mail: … with nasal evolved into the pot helm, or casque. This was an involved process, with the crown of the helmet losing its pointed shape to become flat and the nasal expanding to cover the entire face except for small vision slits and breathing holes. The late 12th-century helm was typically…

poker: Pot limit: In pot-limit contests, a player may bet or raise by no more than the amount in the pot at the time the bet or raise is made. When raising, the player may first put in the pot the number of chips required to…

calendula: Major species and uses: The pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) is grown especially for ornamental purposes and is commonly found in herbal products and cosmetics. The petal-like ray flowers are edible and are sometimes used in salads. Field marigold (C. arvensis) is native to Europe and is used similarly. Sea marigold,…

marjoram: Pot marjoram (O. onites) is also cultivated for its aromatic leaves and is used to flavour food. Oregano, or wild marjoram (O. vulgare), is a popular culinary herb native to Europe and Asia.

distilled spirit: The pot still: The simple pot still is a large enclosed vessel, heated either by direct firing on the bottom or by steam coils within the vessel, with a cylindrical bulb at its top leading to a partially cooled vapour line. The bulb and vapour line separate…

pho: …or “fire”—the French beef stew pot-au-feu is the most obvious precursor to the Vietnamese dish. However, it appears just as likely that the dish’s name evolved from the Vietnamese pronunciation of the Chinese fen, which means “flat rice noodle.”

stove: Its design influenced the potbellied stove, which was a familiar feature in some homes well into the 20th century. The first round cast-iron stoves with grates for cooking food on them were manufactured by Isaac Orr at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1800. The base-burning stove for burning anthracite coal was…