commons: For centuries this right of commons conflicted with the lord’s right to “approve” (i.e., appropriate for his own use) any of his waste, provided he left enough land to support the commoners’ livestock. In the 19th century the right of approvement was in effect assumed by the government.…

commons: For centuries this right of commons conflicted with the lord’s right to “approve” (i.e., appropriate for his own use) any of his waste, provided he left enough land to support the commoners’ livestock. In the 19th century the right of approvement was in effect assumed by the government.…

accounting: Performance reporting: …exhibit employs the widely used profit contribution format, in which divisional results reflect sales and expenses traceable to the individual divisions, with no deduction for head office expenses. Company net income is then obtained by deducting head office expenses as a lump sum from the total of the divisional profit…

theory of production: Maximization of short-run profits: …the determination of the most profitable level of output to produce in a given plant. The only additional datum needed is the price of the product, say p0.

business finance: Profit planning: Ratio analysis applies to a firm’s current operating posture. But a firm must also plan for future growth. This requires decisions as to the expansion of existing operations and, in manufacturing, to the development of new product lines. A firm must choose between…

business finance: Financial ratio analysis: …its invested capital, and various profit ratios (profits as a percentage of sales, of assets, or of net worth) show how successfully it is meeting this objective.

profit sharing, system by which employees are paid a share of the net profits of the company that employs them, in accordance with a written formula defined in advance. Such payments, which may vary according to salary or wage, are distinct from and additional to regular earnings. Profit-sharing

marketing: Profitability control: Profitability control and efficiency control allow a company to closely monitor its sales, profits, and expenditures. Profitability control demonstrates the relative profit-earning capacity of a company’s different products and consumer groups. Companies are frequently surprised to find that a small percentage of their…

Thera: …is the 1,857-foot (566-metre) limestone Mount Profítis Ilías in the southeast. The chief town, Thíra (locally called Firá), was badly damaged by an earthquake in 1956. Other settlements include Emboríon and Pírgos to the south and the port of Oía at the north entrance to the lagoon, which was destroyed…

Páros: …single peak, Profítis Ilías (classical Marpessa), 2,530 feet (771 metres) in height, which slopes evenly on all sides to a maritime plain that is broadest on the northeast and southwest sides. The island is mainly composed of marble. On a bay on the northwest lies the capital, Páros (or Paroikía),…

government budget: The composition of tax revenues: …rely heavily on income and profits taxes, which account for about half of all revenue raised from taxation. In contrast, France, Greece, Portugal, and Spain raise only about one-fifth of their revenue from such taxes. Social security taxes are important throughout Europe, raising about 30 percent of all revenue in…

Sir Arthur Wing Pinero: Seriousness and sentiment fused in The Profligate (1889) and—most sensationally—in The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893), which established Pinero as an important playwright. This was the first of several plays depicting women battling with their situation in society. These plays not only created good parts for actresses but also demanded sympathy…

hypothermia: The technique of profound hypothermia allows protection of the brain, heart, and other vital organs when circulation is stopped during the time of circulatory arrest, which may be an hour or longer. Complex aortic aneurysms involving the proximal portion of the aorta (the trunk of the aorta, originating…

Profumo affair, in British history, political and intelligence scandal in the early 1960s that helped topple the Conservative Party government of Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. Involving sex, a Russian spy, and the secretary of state for war, the scandal captured the attention of the British

John Profumo was a British politician and philanthropist who was the central character in one of the U.K.’s most spectacular sex scandals of the 20th century. The affair helped bring down Britain’s government and led Profumo to devote the rest of his life to charity. Profumo was educated at

John Profumo was a British politician and philanthropist who was the central character in one of the U.K.’s most spectacular sex scandals of the 20th century. The affair helped bring down Britain’s government and led Profumo to devote the rest of his life to charity. Profumo was educated at

lacustrine ecosystem: …and animal plankton; and (3) profundal, the bottom and deepwater area beyond light penetration, supporting dark-adapted organisms.

art rock: …is sometimes used synonymously with progressive rock, but the latter is best used to describe “intellectual” album-oriented rock by such British bands as Genesis, King Crimson, Pink Floyd, and Yes. The term art rock is best used to describe either classically influenced rock by such British groups as the Electric…

turtle: Origin and evolution: A slightly younger fossil species, Proganochelys quenstedi, also had teeth, but the teeth were located on the roof of the mouth, not on the upper or lower jaw. In contrast to Odontochelys, the shell of Proganochelys possessed most of the features of modern turtles, and it completely encased the shoulder…

paedomorphosis: …the rest of development (progenesis) and retardation of bodily development with respect to the onset of reproductive activity (neoteny).

selection: Progeny selection indicates choice of breeding stock on the basis of the performance or testing of their offspring or descendants. Family selection refers to mating of organisms from the same ancestral stock that are not directly related to each other. Pure-line selection involves selecting and…

animal breeding: Progeny testing: Progeny testing is used extensively in the beef and dairy cattle industry to aid in evaluating and selecting stock to be bred. Progeny testing is most useful when a high level of accuracy is needed for selecting a sire to be used extensively…

progeria, any of several rare human disorders associated with premature aging. The two major types of progeria are Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS), which has its onset in early childhood, and Werner syndrome (adult progeria), which occurs later in life. A third condition,

progesterone, hormone secreted by the female reproductive system that functions mainly to regulate the condition of the inner lining (endometrium) of the uterus. Progesterone is produced by the ovaries, placenta, and adrenal glands. The term progestin is used to describe progesterone and synthetic

therapeutics: Hormones: Progestins combined with estrogens constitute the oral contraceptives that inhibit ovulation by affecting the hypothalamus and pituitary. Progestin-only pills and injections are also effective contraceptives; they work by forming a thick cervical mucus that is relatively impenetrable to sperm. The

flatworm: External features: …(body) typically consists of numerous proglottids, each of which is usually a self-sufficient reproducing unit with all of the sexual organs necessary to reproduce. The number of proglottids may vary from three in some species to several hundreds in others. Organs of attachment on the scolex may, in addition to…

Hirundinidae: ” The purple martin (Progne subis) is the largest North American swallow.

bone cancer: Diagnosis and prognosis: The prognosis of bone cancer depends on both the type of cancer and the extent to which it has spread. Bone cancer most frequently spreads to the lungs, but it may also spread to other bones and only rarely to other tissues. Overall, the prognosis for…

metamorphic rock: Retrograde metamorphism: …heating are referred to as prograde metamorphism, whereas those that occur during uplift and cooling of a rock represent retrograde metamorphism. If thermodynamic equilibrium were always maintained, one might expect all the reactions that occur during prograde metamorphism to be reversed during subsequent uplift of the rocks and reexposure at…

social movement: Relations between structural elements: Values include the program and the ideology. The program is the scheme of change, the new social order that the movement proposes to bring about. The ideology is a body of ideas justifying the program and the strategy of the movement. It usually includes a reinterpretation of history,…

radio: The role of advertising: …or the title of the program, as with Camel Caravan, sponsored by the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, or A&P Gypsies, sponsored by the largest American grocery-store chain at the time. Beginning in the 1930s and continuing for more than two decades, a majority of prime-time network programs were actually created…

government budget: Program budgeting and zero-base budgeting: …Kingdom in the introduction of program analysis reviews (PAR), but again attempts to evaluate systematically the whole of government expenditure were unsuccessful. The degree of inertia in the system and the vested interests of existing institutions have proved too entrenched to be overcome by administrative procedure.

government budget: Program budgeting and zero-base budgeting: Traditionally, government expenditures have been considered as inputs rather than outputs. This is because, in the classical 19th-century conception, the well-run government does not produce a marketable output. The program budget derives from this concept; it attempts, however, to classify…

research and development: PERT and CPM: PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) was first used in the development of submarines capable of firing Polaris missiles. CPM (the Critical Path Method) was used to manage the annual maintenance work in an oil and chemical refinery. Many variations and extensions of the two original…

ProMED-mail, global Internet-driven reporting network used to warn of potential outbreaks of infectious disease and of exposures to toxic substances of animals or plants intended for human consumption. ProMED-mail was established as a nonprofit project in 1994 by the Federation of American

Harold K. Johnson: …study commissioned by Johnson, “A Program for the Pacification and Long-Term Development of Vietnam” (which came to be known as PROVN), was published by the army staff in 1966, and it denounced the Westmoreland way of war. The heart of its concerns was security for the people living in…

program music, instrumental music that carries some extramusical meaning, some “program” of literary idea, legend, scenic description, or personal drama. It is contrasted with so-called absolute, or abstract, music, in which artistic interest is supposedly confined to abstract constructions in

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: NOAA is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and manages seven research laboratories—including the National Severe Storms Laboratory in Norman, Oklahoma, the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory in Seattle, Washington, and Newport, Oregon,…

computer program, detailed plan or procedure for solving a problem with a computer; more specifically, an unambiguous, ordered sequence of computational instructions necessary to achieve such a solution. The distinction between computer programs and equipment is often made by referring to the

Stephen Frears: The Program (2015) depicts a journalist’s quest to prove that competitive cyclist Lance Armstrong (Ben Foster), who won seven Tour de France titles, was guilty of doping. In 2016 Frears directed Florence Foster Jenkins, which features Meryl Streep in the title role of a delusional…

automation: Manufacturing applications of automation and robotics: Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in batches. The products are made in batch quantities ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a time. For each new batch, the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over to accommodate…

robot: Industrial robots: Called PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly), they have been used since 1978 to assemble automobile subcomponents such as dash panels and lights. PUMA was widely imitated, and its descendants, large and small, are still used for light assembly in electronics and other industries. Since the…

T.S. Eliot: The Waste Land and criticism: …the poet-critic must write “programmatic criticism”—that is, criticism that expresses the poet’s own interests as a poet, quite different from historical scholarship, which stops at placing the poet in his background. Consciously intended or not, Eliot’s criticism created an atmosphere in which his own poetry could be better understood…

artificial intelligence programming language: The logic programming language PROLOG (Programmation en Logique) was conceived by Alain Colmerauer at the University of Aix-Marseille, France, where the language was first implemented in 1973. PROLOG was further developed by the logician Robert Kowalski, a member of the AI group at the University of Edinburgh. This language…

World Food Programme (WFP), organization established in 1961 by the United Nations (UN) to help alleviate world hunger. Its headquarters are in Rome, Italy. In 2020 the World Food Programme (WFP) was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace “for its efforts to combat hunger, for its contribution to

STEM: Development of STEM in the United States: …eighth graders, and PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment), a triennial assessment of knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds, reinforced concerns in the United States. PISA 2006 results indicated that the United States had a comparatively large proportion of underperforming students and that the country ranked 21st (in a panel…

apoptosis, in biology, a mechanism that allows cells to self-destruct when stimulated by the appropriate trigger. Apoptosis can be triggered by mild cellular injury and by various factors internal or external to the cell; the damaged cells are then disposed of in an orderly fashion. As a

immune system: Immunity against cancer: …immune regulatory protein known as programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), which occurs on the surface of T cells, led to the development of highly effective anti-PD-1 cancer immunotherapies.

Digital Equipment Corporation: Digital’s first computer, the Programmed Data Processor, or PDP-1, was sold in November 1960. Eventually 50 PDP-1s would be sold, nearly half to International Telephone and Telegraph for message switching systems.

apoptosis, in biology, a mechanism that allows cells to self-destruct when stimulated by the appropriate trigger. Apoptosis can be triggered by mild cellular injury and by various factors internal or external to the cell; the damaged cells are then disposed of in an orderly fashion. As a

programmed learning, educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed learning received its major impetus from the work done in the mid-1950s by the American behavioral psychologist B.F.

programmed learning, educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed learning received its major impetus from the work done in the mid-1950s by the American behavioral psychologist B.F.

apoptosis, in biology, a mechanism that allows cells to self-destruct when stimulated by the appropriate trigger. Apoptosis can be triggered by mild cellular injury and by various factors internal or external to the cell; the damaged cells are then disposed of in an orderly fashion. As a

PLATO, computer-based education system created in 1960 by Donald L. Bitzer at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). In addition to being used successfully as a teaching tool, PLATO also spawned one of the first successful online communities. In many ways, PLATO’s development

computer graphics: Processors and programs: PHIGS (programmer’s hierarchical interactive graphics system) is another set of graphics routines. VRML (virtual reality modeling language) is a graphics description language for World Wide Web applications. Several commercial and free packages provide extensive three-dimensional modeling capabilities for realistic graphics. More modest tools, offering only…

automation: Machine programming: The programmed instructions determine the set of actions that is to be accomplished automatically by the system. The program specifies what the automated system should do and how its various components must function in order to accomplish the desired result. The content of…

mathematical programming, theoretical tool of management science and economics in which management operations are described by mathematical equations that can be manipulated for a variety of purposes. If the basic descriptions involved take the form of linear algebraic equations, the technique is

computer program, detailed plan or procedure for solving a problem with a computer; more specifically, an unambiguous, ordered sequence of computational instructions necessary to achieve such a solution. The distinction between computer programs and equipment is often made by referring to the

computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language, after a simple substitution process

APL: …the initials of) the book A Programming Language (1962) by Kenneth E. Iverson of IBM. It has been adapted for use in many different computers and fields because of its concise syntax. Statements are expressed with simple notations that have powerful built-in operational functions such as looping, sorting, and selection.…

artificial intelligence programming language: The logic programming language PROLOG (Programmation en Logique) was conceived by Alain Colmerauer at the University of Aix-Marseille, France, where the language was first implemented in 1973. PROLOG was further developed by the logician Robert Kowalski, a member of the AI group at the University of Edinburgh. This language…

Spain: Moderates, progressives, and the generals: Their rivals, the progresistas (progressives), were the heirs of the exaltados and represented a lower stratum of the middle class; the progresistas were prepared to use the discontent of the urban masses in order to bring pressure on the crown to give them office. Their instrument was the…

Progreso, city and port on the Gulf of Mexico, northern Yucatán estado (state), Mexico. It lies about 22 miles (35 km) north of Mérida, the state capital. The chief port of Yucatán, Progreso was initially developed to export henequen (a fiber produced on plantations in the hinterland), but it now

Jovita Idár: Standing up for the First Amendment: …began working at the newspaper El Progreso. By some accounts, when she was 29 years old, the newspaper published an editorial that criticized U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson’s sending troops to the Texas-Mexico border. In response, the state governor sent the Texas Rangers to shut down the newspaper. When the Rangers…

El Progreso, city, northwestern Honduras, on the Ulúa River, southeast of San Pedro Sula. The city, founded in 1927 as a banana trade centre, grew in the 1970s into a commercial and transshipment centre for the Caribbean ports and the interior. Industries include cement products, metalware, shoes,

Soyuz: …derivative of Soyuz, known as Progress, was developed as a space station resupply vehicle; cargo and refueling modules replaced the orbital and descent modules in the Soyuz design. Its operational use began in 1978 with a mission to Salyut 6.

stagecraft: Renaissance costume: The progresses in England, entrées in France, and trionfi in Italy were based on the triumphal processions of the ancient world. The monarch or emperor was glorified as the hero, and the monarch’s entourage and vassals appeared in semiclassical grandeur. There were floats of allegorical figures…

Abundance and Unemployment: Our Future: …believe that exponential technologies are driving us toward a world of ever-increasing abundance. Within the next 30 years, we will be able to meet and exceed the needs of every man, woman, and child. From there on out, I believe we are heading toward more of a Star Trek universe…

Henry George: …reformer and economist who in Progress and Poverty (1879) proposed the single tax: that the state tax away all economic rent—the income from the use of bare land but not from improvements—and abolish all other taxes.

James Barry: …Irish-born artist whose major work, The Progress of Human Culture, is a series of six monumental paintings of historical and allegorical subjects done for the Great Room of the Royal Society of Arts, London.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard: …with four large paintings (Progress of Love, 1771–73), and in 1772 he received a somewhat similar commission from the notorious actress Madeleine Guimard. Neither was a success, the Louveciennes paintings probably being rejected as too Rococo for a totally Neoclassical setting.

Alice Munro: First short-story collections: …of Flo and Rose) and The Progress of Love (1986)—awarded the annual Governor General’s Literary Award for fiction. Lives of Girls and Women (1971) was conceived as a novel but developed into a series of interrelated coming-of-age stories. Like much of her fiction, the tales capture the social and cultural…

English literature: Poets and poetry after Pope: In later odes, particularly The Progress of Poesy (1757), Gray successfully sought close imitation of the original Pindaric form, even emulating Greek rhythms in English, while developing ambitious ideas about cultural continuity and renewal. Gray’s fascination with the potency of primitive art (as evidenced in another great ode, The…

Norway: Political and social change: …minority coalition government with the Progress Party, whose anti-immigration stance had mitigated against attracting a third party to the coalition, preventing it from forming a majority government, .

Denmark: Postwar politics: …Party (Kristeligt Folkeparti), and the Progress Party (Fremskridtspartiet), an antitax party. A weak minority government under Poul Hartling of the Liberal Party tried to solve the country’s growing economic problems, but his austerity program resulted in protests from trade unions and the opposition. In 1975 Jørgensen again came to power…

Alun Owen: …his stage plays, which included Progress to the Park and The Rough and Ready Lot, both of which were broadcast in 1958 and produced for the stage in 1959 and which depicted religious and cultural bigotry. The former concerns the destruction of the love between a Protestant boy and a…

Alliance for Progress, former international economic development program established by the United States and 22 Latin American countries in the Charter of Punta del Este (Uruguay) in August 1961. Objectives stated in the charter centred on the maintenance of democratic government and the

Progressive Federal Party (PFP), former South African political party established in 1977 in the merger of the Progressive Reform Party (founded 1975) and defectors from the United Party (founded 1934; see also New Republic Party). During the late 1970s and the 1980s it was the official opposition

F.N. Souza: Husain, cofounded the Progressive Artists Group. In 1949 he left India to live in London, where, while struggling to make an impact as an artist, he eked out a living as a journalist. He also wrote an autobiography, Words & Lines (1959). In 1967 Souza received the Guggenheim…

Progressive Bloc, coalition of moderate conservatives and liberals in the fourth Russian Duma (elected legislative body) that tried to pressure the imperial government into adopting a series of reforms aimed at inspiring public confidence in the government and at improving the management of

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Course of the disease: …are progressive muscular atrophy and progressive bulbar palsy. Progressive muscular atrophy is a variety of ALS in which the neuron degeneration is most pronounced in the spinal cord. Symptoms are similar to the common form of ALS, though spasticity is absent and muscle weakness is less severe. In addition, individuals…

hospital: Extended health care: …cost of hospital operations, the progressive-care concept is more attractive, both for outpatient and inpatient care. Progressive care can be divided into five categories: (1) intensive care, (2) intermediate care, (3) self-care, (4) long-term care, and (5) organized home care.

Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, former national political party in Canada, historically (with the Liberal Party of Canada) one of Canada’s two major parties. In the 1990s, however, its support plummeted, and in 2003 it merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of

outlaw music, movement of American country music in the 1970s spearheaded by Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings. Sometimes called progressive country, outlaw music was an attempt to escape the formulaic constraints of the Nashville Sound (simple songs, the use of studio musicians, and lush

Progressive Democrats, conservative political party that was founded in 1985 as a result of a split within Ireland’s major party, Fianna Fáil, and that officially dissolved in 2009. The Progressive Democrat party was launched on Dec. 21, 1985, principally by Desmond O’Malley, who sought to “break

Progressive Democrats, conservative political party that was founded in 1985 as a result of a split within Ireland’s major party, Fianna Fáil, and that officially dissolved in 2009. The Progressive Democrat party was launched on Dec. 21, 1985, principally by Desmond O’Malley, who sought to “break

dysplasia: Progressive diaphyseal dysplasia (Engelmann syndrome) is a not-uncommon hereditary (autosomal recessive) disorder that begins in childhood. The shafts of the long bones and the skull vault become thickened; individuals with the disorder may have bone pain, weak muscles, fatigue, and a stiff, waddling gait.

progressive education, movement that took form in Europe and the United States during the late 19th century as a reaction to the alleged narrowness and formalism of traditional education. One of its main objectives was to educate the “whole child”—that is, to attend to physical and emotional, as

Richard Howard: … (1991), Without Saying (2008), and A Progressive Education (2014).

Uruguay: Civilian government: …left-wing groups led by Vázquez—the Progressive Encounter–Broad Front (Encuentro Progresista–Frente Amplio; EP–FA)—won a majority in both houses of the General Assembly for the first time. During his term, Vázquez was credited with improving an economy that had been beset by years of negative growth; financing social programs; and investigating disappearances,…

Progressive Federal Party (PFP), former South African political party established in 1977 in the merger of the Progressive Reform Party (founded 1975) and defectors from the United Party (founded 1934; see also New Republic Party). During the late 1970s and the 1980s it was the official opposition

Cleveland: The contemporary city: …venues that opened in 1994: Jacobs Field, which is built in the style of early 20th-century ballparks, for the Cleveland Guardians professional baseball team; and Gund Arena, home of the Cavaliers professional basketball team. Playhouse Square Center, southeast of downtown, contains several historic theatres and is home to the Great…

hospital: Extended health care: …cost of hospital operations, the progressive-care concept is more attractive, both for outpatient and inpatient care. Progressive care can be divided into five categories: (1) intensive care, (2) intermediate care, (3) self-care, (4) long-term care, and (5) organized home care.

Stan Kenton: …was responsible for the “progressive jazz” label that some mistake for all modern jazz and some use to identify all Kenton-linked jazz. Some critics place his music in the “cool jazz” category and, being based in California, many of his players—including Shorty Rogers, Bill Perkins, and Shelly Manne—were identified…

Bermuda: History of Bermuda: …first Bermudian political party, the Progressive Labour Party (PLP), organized in 1963, claimed to represent the nonwhite citizens. In 1968 a new constitution gave strong powers to the elected head of the majority political party in the legislature, and the next election placed the multiracial United Bermuda Party (UBP) in…

Bermuda: History of Bermuda: …first Bermudian political party, the Progressive Labour Party (PLP), organized in 1963, claimed to represent the nonwhite citizens. In 1968 a new constitution gave strong powers to the elected head of the majority political party in the legislature, and the next election placed the multiracial United Bermuda Party (UBP) in…

The Bahamas: Political process: …main political parties are the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP; founded 1953), which led the movement for government by the majority in the 1950s and ’60s, and the Free National Movement (FNM; 1972), which grew out of the PLP.

tabes dorsalis, rare neurologic form of tertiary syphilis, involving sensory deficits, loss of neuromuscular coordination, and diminished reflexes. Symptoms of this form of neurosyphilis chiefly affect the legs and may not appear for more than 25 years after the initial infection. Untreated, tabes

social movement: Types of social movements: …of social affairs, while a progressive movement argues for a new social arrangement. A conservative movement opposes the changes proposed by other movements, or those seeming to develop through cultural drift, and advocates preservation of existing values and norms.

United States: The character and variety of the Progressive movement: The inauguration of Pres. William McKinley in 1897 had seemed to mark the end of an era of domestic turmoil and the beginning of a new period of unparalleled tranquility. Prosperity was returning after the devastating panic of 1893. The agrarian uprising led…