voice: …languages are those of active, passive, and middle voice. These distinctions may be made by inflection, as in Latin, or by syntactic variation, as in English. The active-passive opposition can be illustrated by the following sentences:

personality disorder: Persons with passive-aggressive personality disorder express their hostility through such indirect means as stubbornness, procrastination, inefficiency, and forgetfulness.

rocket and missile system: Passive: Passive guidance systems neither emitted energy nor received commands from an external source; rather, they “locked” onto an electronic emission coming from the target itself. The earliest successful passive homing munitions were “heat-seeking” air-to-air missiles that homed onto the infrared emissions of jet engine…

rocket and missile system: Inertial: Passive-homing antiradiation missiles, designed to destroy radar installations, generally combined inertial guidance with memory-equipped autopilots to maintain their trajectory toward the target in case the radar stopped transmitting.

liquid crystal display: Supertwisted nematic displays: The display is activated using passive-matrix addressing, for which the pixels are arranged in rows and columns; selective application of a voltage to a particular row and column will activate the corresponding element at their intersection. The supertwist causes a larger relative change in optical transmission with applied voltage, compared…

vehicular safety devices: Passive-restraint devices protect drivers and passengers without any action on their part. Among those tested was the air bag, an inflatable pillow-like cushion stored in the instrument panel and triggered to inflate in a fraction of a second by the force of impact, cushioning and…

påssjo, the sacred area in a Sami kota, or tent, found directly behind the central hearth. Strictly forbidden to women, the påssjo was furnished with its own entrance and sometimes set off with poles to separate it from the living space in the rest of the kota. The påssjo held all objects of value,

Gilbert & George: …17, 1943, Dolomites, Italy) and George Passmore (b. January 8, 1942, Plymouth, Devon, England), whose dynamic and often humorous insertion of themselves into their art proved an important chapter in postwar British conceptual art.

Resia Pass, pass south of the Austrian-Italian border and just east of the Swiss frontier. It is 4,934 feet (1,504 m) high and about 1 mile (1.6 km) long and separates the Unterengadin section of the Inn River valley, Austria, from the Venosta Valley or Adige River valley, Italy. The pass marks the

San Bernardino Pass, mountain pass (6,775 ft [2,065 m]), in the Lepontine Alps of Graubünden canton, southeastern Switzerland. Although the pass was not mentioned until 941, it is believed to have been in use since prehistoric times. The road over the pass connects the villages of Splügen and

Passo Fundo, city, northern Rio Grande do Sul estado (state), southern Brazil. The city lies near the headwaters of the Passo Fundo River at 2,326 feet (709 metres) above sea level. Passo Fundo was founded in 1857 and given city status in 1890. It is a service centre for an agricultural and

Passos, city, southwestern Minas Gerais estado (state), Brazil. Passos lies along the Bocaina River near the Rio Grande, at 2,388 feet (728 metres) above sea level. It was made a seat of a municipality in 1848 and became a city 10 years later. Rice, corn (maize), sugarcane, cotton, coffee, and

John Dos Passos was an American writer, one of the major novelists of the post-World War I “lost generation.” His reputation as a social historian and as a radical critic of the quality of American life rests primarily on his trilogy U.S.A. The son of a wealthy lawyer of Portuguese descent, Dos

Passover, in Judaism, holiday commemorating the Hebrews’ liberation from slavery in Egypt and the “passing over” of the forces of destruction, or the sparing of the firstborn of the Israelites, when the Lord “smote the land of Egypt” on the eve of the Exodus. Passover begins with the 15th and ends

passport, a formal document or certification issued by a national government identifying a traveler as a citizen or national with a right to protection while abroad and a right to return to the country of citizenship. Passports, letters of transit, and similar documents were used for centuries to

Stanley Kunitz: His collection Passport to the War (1944), like his first book, contains meticulously crafted, intellectual verse. Most of the poems from these first two works were reprinted with some 30 new poems in Selected Poems 1928–1958 (1958), which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1959.

Herta Müller: …Fasan auf der Welt (The Passport), was published in Germany in 1986. Although her circumstances had changed, her work continued to present and examine the formative experiences of her life: themes such as totalitarianism and exile pervade her work. Her style was described by Romanian journalist Emil Hurezeanu as…

measurement system: Greeks and Romans: Five Roman feet made the pace (passus), equivalent to 1.48 metres or 4.86 feet.

Mark Goodson: (1956–68, 2016– ), Concentration (1958–73), Password (1961–75), and The Match Game (1962–69, 1973–90, 2016– ). He was honoured in 1990 with an Emmy Award for lifetime achievement, and in December 1992 he was selected for 1993 induction into the Hall of Fame of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences.

password, in computing, a sequence of characters used to authenticate a user’s identity and authorize access to a computer system, website, mobile phone, or other digital device. A password is intended to be secret (known only by an authorized user) and is often paired with a username to confirm an

Paris: The Buttes: Upon the heights of Passy, on the Right Bank between the western city limits and the Arc de Triomphe, perch the wealthy neighbourhoods of the 16th arrondissement. By contrast, the Butte-Montmartre (18th arrondissement) and the Buttes-Chaumont (19th arrondissement), which rise along the northern rim of the city, are historically…

Frédéric Passy was a French economist and advocate of international arbitration who was co-winner (with Jean-Henri Dunant) of the first Nobel Prize for Peace in 1901. After serving as auditor for the French Council of State (1846–49), Passy devoted himself to writing, lecturing, and organizing on

salvation: Time: …of the temporal categories of past, present, and future. This time-consciousness is possessed by no other species with such insistent clarity. It enables humans to draw upon past experience in the present and to plan for future contingencies. This faculty, however, has another effect: it causes humans to be aware…

Thomas Carlyle: London: …the hero was elaborated in Past and Present, which strove “to penetrate…into a somewhat remote century…in hope of perhaps illustrating our own poor century thereby.” He contrasts the wise and strong rule of a medieval abbot with the muddled softness and chaos of the 19th century, pronouncing in favour of…

confidence game: A popular swindle, known as past posting, required a dummy telegraph office that was used to persuade the mark that horse-race results could be delayed long enough for him to bet on the winner after the race was won. As soon as the mark committed a large amount of money,…

Germanic languages: Conjugations: …and two participles (present and past). The Proto-Indo-European tense-aspect system (present, imperfect, aorist, perfect) was reshaped to a single tense contrast between present and past. The past showed two innovations: (1) In the “strong” verb, Germanic transformed Proto-Indo-European ablaut into a specific tense marker (e.g., Proto-Indo-European *bher-, *bhor-, *bhēr-, *bhṛ-…

Asghar Farhadi: …turmoil in Le Passé (2013; The Past), which centres on an Iranian man who travels from Tehrān to Paris in order to finalize his divorce so his estranged French wife can remarry, and in Forushande (2016; The Salesman), about a couple whose relationship becomes strained after the wife is assaulted.…

pasta, any of several starchy food preparations (pasta alimentaria) frequently associated with Italian cuisine and made from semolina, the granular product obtained from the endosperm of a type of wheat called durum, and containing a large proportion of gluten (elastic protein). It is formed into

pasta, any of several starchy food preparations (pasta alimentaria) frequently associated with Italian cuisine and made from semolina, the granular product obtained from the endosperm of a type of wheat called durum, and containing a large proportion of gluten (elastic protein). It is formed into

Giuditta Pasta was the reigning Italian soprano of her time, acclaimed for her vocal range and expressiveness. She studied with Bonifazio Asioli and Giuseppe Scappa at Milan and made her debut there in 1815 in Scappa’s Le tre Eleonore. She gave a brilliant performance in 1821 at the Théâtre-Italien

paste, heavy, very transparent flint glass that simulates the fire and brilliance of gemstones because it has relatively high indices of refraction and strong dispersion (separation of white light into its component colours). From a very early period the imitation of gems was attempted. The Romans

industrial glass: Tableware: …blowing pipe into a split paste-mold. The paste-mold is made of cast iron and is lined with a wetted cork-type or pasted-sawdust material. The resulting steam cushion gives a smooth finish to the glass, which is rotated in the mold during the blowing step. The formed ware is then gently…

pastel, dry drawing medium executed with fragile, finger-size sticks. These drawing crayons, called pastels, are made of powdered pigments combined with a minimum of nongreasy binder, usually gum tragacanth or, from the mid-20th century, methyl cellulose. Made in a wide range of color values, the

printmaking: Crayon manner and stipple engraving: Invented in the 18th century, crayon manner was purely a reproduction technique; its aim was the imitation of chalk drawings. The process started with a plate covered with hard ground (see below Etching). The design was created using a great…

Boris Leonidovich Pasternak was a Russian poet whose novel Doctor Zhivago helped win him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958 but aroused so much opposition in the Soviet Union that he declined the honour. An epic of wandering, spiritual isolation, and love amid the harshness of the Russian

Henry Koster: Early work: …Universal Studios and, with producer Joe Pasternak, immediately went to work on a series of musicals starring Deanna Durbin, a teenager who Universal hoped would compete with Twentieth Century-Fox’s star Shirley Temple. The frothy films—which included Three Smart Girls (1936); One Hundred Men and a Girl (1937), recipient of an…

Boris Leonidovich Pasternak: His father, Leonid, was an art professor and a well-known artist, portraitist of novelist Leo Tolstoy, poet Rainer Maria Rilke, and composer Sergey Rachmaninoff, all frequent guests at his home, and of Lenin. His mother was the pianist Rosa Kaufman.

Grossglockner: …on the mountain is the Pasterze Glacier, 5 miles (8 km) long and 3 miles (5 km) wide. The Grossglockner-Hochalpenstrasse, a highway (opened 1935) connecting Dölfach to the north with Heiligenblut to the south, lies to the east of the peak. The road has two tunnels (the Mitteltörl and Hochtor),…

Louis Pasteur: Pasteur effect: The realization that specific organisms were involved in fermentation was further supported by Pasteur’s studies of butyric acid fermentation. These studies led Pasteur to the unexpected discovery that the fermentation process could be arrested by passing air (that is, oxygen) through the fermenting…

Louis Pasteur: Vaccine development of Louis Pasteur: …was launched to build the Pasteur Institute in Paris, the inauguration of which took place on November 14, 1888.

Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist who was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. Pasteur’s contributions to science, technology, and medicine are nearly without precedent. He pioneered the study of molecular asymmetry; discovered that microorganisms cause

Pasteurella, genus of rod-shaped bacteria that causes several serious diseases in domestic animals and milder infections in humans. The genus was named after Louis Pasteur. Its species are microbiologically characterized as gram-negative, nonmotile, facultative anaerobes (not requiring oxygen) that

Pasteurella: Pasteurella multocida is pathogenic for many animals, causing fowl cholera, blood poisoning in ruminants, pneumonia in young cattle, and respiratory infection in cattle and humans. It is also the cause of shipping fever, which commonly attacks animals under stress, as during shipping. In this disease,…

Yersinia pestis, bacterium in the family Yersiniaceae (order Enterobacterales) that causes plague. Yersinia pestis is classified as a Gram-negative coccobacillus, being spherical to cylindrical in shape and having a thin peptidoglycan cell wall surrounded by an outer lipopolysaccharide membrane. It

tularemia: …caused by the gram-negative bacterium Francisella tularensis and presenting with varying signs and symptoms that range from mild to severe. Tularemia was described in 1911 among ground squirrels in Tulare county, California (from which the name is derived), and was first reported in humans in the United States in 1914.…

pasteurellosis, any bacterial disease caused by Pasteurella species. The name is sometimes used interchangeably with the so-called shipping fever, a specific type of pasteurellosis (caused by Pasteurella multocida) that commonly attacks cattle under stress, as during shipping. In this type of

bacteria: Budding: In some Pasteuria strains, the daughter buds have a flagellum and are motile, whereas the mother cells lack flagella but have long pili and holdfast appendages at the end opposite the bud. The related Planctomyces, found in plankton, have long fibrillar stalks at the end opposite the…

pasteurization, heat-treatment process that destroys pathogenic microorganisms in certain foods and beverages. It is named for the French scientist Louis Pasteur, who in the 1860s demonstrated that abnormal fermentation of wine and beer could be prevented by heating the beverages to about 57 °C

opera: Early opera in Germany and Austria: These had pasticcio (“assembled” from preexisting works) scores capitalizing, not very successfully, on the great popularity of The Beggar’s Opera (1728), the score of which was similarly assembled by John Christopher Pepusch. In German translation, the Coffey texts attracted the attention of German composers, most notably Johann…

forgery: Forgery in the visual arts: In the composite fraud, or pastiche, the forger combines copies of various parts of another artist’s work to form a new composition and adds a few connecting elements of his own to make it a convincing presentation. This type of forgery is more difficult to detect than the copy. Such…

Marcel Proust: Life and works: …reprint of Swann and with Pastiches et mélanges, a miscellaneous volume containing “L’Affaire Lemoine” and the Ruskin prefaces. In December 1919, through Léon Daudet’s recommendation, À l’ombre received the Prix Goncourt, and Proust suddenly became world famous. Three more installments appeared in his lifetime, with the benefit of his final…

pharmaceutical industry: Other solid dosage forms: Lozenges usually consist of a mixture of sugar and either gum or gelatin, which are compressed to form a solid mass. Lozenges are designed to release drug while slowly dissolving in the mouth. Suppositories are solid dosage forms designed for introduction into the rectum or…

history of publishing: Nonprofessional types: …layman may fall into the hobby category. Very often a professional magazine has an amateur counterpart, as, for instance, in electronics, where the amateur finds a wide range of technical magazines on radio, television, hi-fi, and tape recording. Other popular subjects are photography (the British Amateur Photographer was founded in…

parsnip, (species Pastinaca sativa), member of the parsley family (Apiaceae), cultivated since ancient times for its large, tapering, fleshy white root, which is edible and has a distinctive flavour. The root is found on roadsides and in open places in Great Britain and throughout Europe and

absinthe: …as Pernod, anis (or anisette), pastis, ouzo, or raki. Pastis also turns cloudy white when mixed with water, and anis turns to a cloudy greenish-tinged white.

Pasto, city, capital of Nariño department, southwestern Colombia, situated 8,291 feet (2,527 m) above sea level at the base of Galeras Volcano (14,029 feet [4,276 m]). Founded in 1539, Pasto was a royalist stronghold during the revolution against Spain. Although now less important as a trade centre

Pasto Knot, mountain knot formed in Colombia by the merging of the terminal ranges of the Andes Mountains: the Cordilleras Oriental, Central, and

Pasto Knot, mountain knot formed in Colombia by the merging of the terminal ranges of the Andes Mountains: the Cordilleras Oriental, Central, and

Pasto Knot, mountain knot formed in Colombia by the merging of the terminal ranges of the Andes Mountains: the Cordilleras Oriental, Central, and

Sir John Fastolf: …Norfolk neighbour and friend John Paston picture Fastolf as an irascible, acquisitive old man who was utterly ruthless in his business dealings. Childless, he intended to leave his possessions for pious works, but the Pastons got most of them. The bishop of Winchester, however, managed to salvage a portion for…

Paston Letters, the largest surviving collection of 15th-century English correspondence. It is invaluable to historians and philologists and is preserved mainly in the British Museum. Part is derived from the circle of the career soldier Sir John Fastolf (c. 1378–1459), and part is from the

Roman Catholicism: Pius IX: …converged in the doctrinal constitution Pastor aeternus (“Eternal Shepherd”), promulgated by the First Vatican Council (commonly called Vatican I) on July 18, 1870. It asserted that

Battista Guarini: …wrote his celebrated dramatic pastoral, Il pastor fido (“The Faithful Shepherd”). Written and revised over a period of many years, this pastoral tragicomedy, set in Arcadia, was published in 1590 and first performed at the carnival at Crema in 1595. Although it lacked the lyrical simplicity of Tasso’s earlier work…

Charles Taze Russell was the founder of the International Bible Students Association, forerunner of the Jehovah’s Witnesses. By the time he was 20, Russell had left both Presbyterianism and Congregationalism because he could not reconcile the idea of an eternal hell with God’s mercy. He had drifted

Tony Pastor was an American impresario and comic singer, considered the father of vaudeville in the United States. An entertainer from the age of six, Pastor appeared at P.T. Barnum’s American Museum in New York City as a child prodigy and then appeared in minstrel shows and in the circus before he

Ludwig Pastor, baron von Campersfelden was a German author of one of the monumental papal histories, Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters, 16 vol. (1886–1933; History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages). While a student, Pastor became acquainted with the leading

Tony Pastor was an American impresario and comic singer, considered the father of vaudeville in the United States. An entertainer from the age of six, Pastor appeared at P.T. Barnum’s American Museum in New York City as a child prodigy and then appeared in minstrel shows and in the circus before he

Carrizo Mountains: …this extinct volcanic range is Pastora Peak (9,412 ft [2,869 m]). The arid mountains are within the Navajo Indian Reservation.

Edén Pastora was a Nicaraguan guerrilla leader and legendary fighter. A military commander of the Sandinista movement, Pastora led the assault on the national palace in Managua, Nicaragua, on August 22, 1978. Twenty-three men under his command took some 1,000 hostages, about half of them

Edén Pastora was a Nicaraguan guerrilla leader and legendary fighter. A military commander of the Sandinista movement, Pastora led the assault on the national palace in Managua, Nicaragua, on August 22, 1978. Twenty-three men under his command took some 1,000 hostages, about half of them

Claudio Monteverdi: Three decades in Venice: …the other hand, from the pastoral, with its highly artificial characterizations of shepherds and shepherdesses. Monteverdi, however, was increasingly concerned with the expression of human emotions and the creation of recognizable human beings, with their changes of mind and mood. Thus, he wished to develop a greater variety of musical…

Jacopo Bassano: …of the finest is his Pastoral. These works elaborated the genre and landscape elements that had been incidental in his religious works.

Christianity: Pastoral care: Pastoral care has always been of special importance in the Christian community. The biographies of the great charismatic ministers, beginning with the Fathers of the Eastern church and the Western church, testify to surprising variations of this pastoral care. The principal interest of…

mirror for princes: Gregory I’s Pastoral Care (6th century): though centred on the role of bishops, rather than secular lords, Gregory’s emphasis on humility as a key virtue of those holding worldly power, on the moral temptations of secular might, and on the need to provide moral leadership by example…

Greener pasturesA Raika pastoral shepherd walking with his goats near Jawai Bandh in Rajasthan, India.© Sandeep Bisht/Alamy pastoral communities in India, groups of people in that country whose livelihoods depend primarily on herding and rearing livestock, such as sheep, goats, cows, buffalo,

Second Vatican Council: Documents: The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the World of Today (Gaudium et spes; Latin: “Joy and Hope”) acknowledges the profound changes humanity is experiencing and attempts to relate the church’s concept of itself and of revelation to the needs and values of contemporary culture, including…

Christianity: Pastoral care: Pastoral care has always been of special importance in the Christian community. The biographies of the great charismatic ministers, beginning with the Fathers of the Eastern church and the Western church, testify to surprising variations of this pastoral care. The principal interest of…

biblical literature: The Pastoral Letters: I and II Timothy and Titus: The First and Second Letters of Paul to Timothy and the Letter of Paul to Titus, three small epistles traditionally part of the Pauline corpus, are written not to churches nor…

biblical literature: The Pastoral Letters: I and II Timothy and Titus: The First and Second Letters of Paul to Timothy and the Letter of Paul to Titus, three small epistles traditionally part of the Pauline corpus, are written not to churches nor…

pastoral literature, class of literature that presents the society of shepherds as free from the complexity and corruption of city life. Many of the idylls written in its name are far remote from the realities of any life, rustic or urban. Among the writers who have used the pastoral convention

Society of Friends: The impact of evangelicalism: …Midwest and Far West, “pastoral meetings” in which a paid minister assumed the functions of delivering a sermon and exercising pastoral care of members. Such meetings often called themselves “Friends’ Churches”; congregational singing was a part of the service, which might have only a few moments of silence, and…

Christianity: Pastoral care: Pastoral care has always been of special importance in the Christian community. The biographies of the great charismatic ministers, beginning with the Fathers of the Eastern church and the Western church, testify to surprising variations of this pastoral care. The principal interest of…

pastoral nomadism, one of the three general types of nomadism, a way of life of peoples who do not live continually in the same place but move cyclically or periodically. Pastoral nomads, who depend on domesticated livestock, migrate in an established territory to find pasturage for their animals.

pastoral nomadism, one of the three general types of nomadism, a way of life of peoples who do not live continually in the same place but move cyclically or periodically. Pastoral nomads, who depend on domesticated livestock, migrate in an established territory to find pasturage for their animals.

mirror for princes: Gregory I’s Pastoral Care (6th century): though centred on the role of bishops, rather than secular lords, Gregory’s emphasis on humility as a key virtue of those holding worldly power, on the moral temptations of secular might, and on the need to provide moral leadership by example…

primitive culture: Herding societies: Herding societies are in many respects the direct opposite of forest horticulturalists. They are usually the most nomadic of primitive societies, they occupy arid grasslands rather than rainforests, they have a nearly total commitment to their animals, and their sociopolitical system is nearly…

crosier, staff with a curved top that is carried by bishops of the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and some European Lutheran churches and by abbots and abbesses as an insignia of their ecclesiastical office. Formerly, the crosier also signified the bishop’s temporal power. It is made of metal or carved

Symphony No. 6 in F Major, symphony by Ludwig van Beethoven. Premiering in Vienna December 22, 1808, on the same concert that offered the premiere of his Symphony No. 5, this work is distinct from that one in part due to its generally optimistic character, but also by the presence of a sequence of

André Gide: Great creative period: …Strait Is the Gate), and La Symphonie pastorale (1919; “The Pastoral Symphony”) reflect Gide’s attempts to achieve harmony in his marriage in their treatment of the problems of human relationships. They mark an important stage in his development: adapting his works’ treatment and style to his concern with psychological problems.…

George Saunders: More short-story collections followed: Pastoralia (2000), In Persuasion Nation (2006), and Tenth of December (2013). He also wrote the children’s book The Very Persistent Gappers of Frip, illustrated by Lane Smith, which was published in 2000. His novella The Brief and Frightening Reign of Phil was released in 2005.…

primitive culture: Herding societies: Herding societies are in many respects the direct opposite of forest horticulturalists. They are usually the most nomadic of primitive societies, they occupy arid grasslands rather than rainforests, they have a nearly total commitment to their animals, and their sociopolitical system is nearly…

Ambrose Philips: …best-known poems were collected in Pastorals and were probably written while he was a fellow at Cambridge, although they were not published until 1710. For Pastorals, published in one of Jacob Tonson’s several volumes entitled Miscellany, Philips won immediate praise from several leading men of letters, including Richard Steele and…

Alexander Pope: Early works: By 1705 his “Pastorals” were in draft and were circulating among the best literary judges of the day. In 1706 Jacob Tonson, the leading publisher of poetry, had solicited their publication, and they took the place of honour in his Poetical Miscellanies in 1709.

Jack Reed: John Pastore, Reed received an appointment to the United States Military Academy (West Point), graduating with a bachelor’s degree in 1971. While an officer in the U.S. Army, he studied public policy at Harvard University (M.P.P., 1973). He then served in the 82nd Airborne Division…

Francis Daniel Pastorius was a German educator, humanitarian, author, and public official who helped settle Pennsylvania and was the founder of Germantown, Pa. After graduating from the University of Altdorf in 1676, Pastorius practiced law in Germany and, from 1680 to 1682, traveled throughout

Joni Mitchell: Legacy and honors: …with producers and arrangers—such as Jaco Pastorius, Mike Gibbs, and Larry Klein—Mitchell maintained coproducer credit and always had control over her material. Her songs were covered by a range of stars, including Dylan, Fairport Convention, Judy Collins, Johnny Cash, and Crosby, Stills and Nash. Mitchell was awarded the Polar Music…

Dame Ivy Compton-Burnett: Pastors and Masters (1925), Compton-Burnett’s second novel, was published 14 years after her first, and it introduced the style that was to make her name. In this book the struggle for power, which occupies so many of her characters, is brought to light through clipped,…

Martin Niemöller: …Nazi Party, Niemöller founded the Pfarrernotbund (“Pastors’ Emergency League”). The group, among its other activities, helped combat rising discrimination against Christians of Jewish descent caught in the tension between a religious definition as Christian and the German racial definition of Jews based on the identity of people’s grandparents.

Priests’ Charter, (October 1370), treaty that unified the legal system in all the Swiss cantons, particularly highlighting two features: safety on the highways for traders and nonintervention by foreign priests. Bruno Brun, a provost wanting to escape punishment, was the catalyst for an amendment

Pastoureaux, (French: “Shepherds”), the participants in two popular outbreaks of mystico-political enthusiasm in France in 1251 and 1320. The first Pastoureaux were peasants in northeastern France who were aroused in 1251 by news of reverses suffered by King Louis IX in his first crusade against