Ratramnus was a theologian, priest, and monk at the Benedictine abbey of Corbie whose important 9th-century work provoked the eucharistic controversy and was posthumously condemned. It was at the request (c. 850) of the West Frankish king Charles II the Bald that Ratramnus began to write two major

José Bianco: The Rats is a psychological novel, with a complicated but flawlessly constructed plot that leads to the poisoning of the protagonist. Bianco’s narrator has a complicated psychological makeup that is elegantly drawn, and the plot develops inexorably yet unexpectedly to the surprising ending. Shadow Play…

Madagascar: Transition: Richard Ratsimandrava. He assumed the titles of president and prime minister but was assassinated six days later. A military directorate was then established; it dissolved on June 15, after naming Lieut. Comdr. Didier Ratsiraka president and head of the Revolutionary Council. A referendum on December…

Betsimisaraka: …the early 18th century by Ratsimilaho. He united the various chiefdoms along a 400-mile (650-kilometre) stretch of the coast and gave the Betsimisaraka their name, but the kingdom collapsed on the death of the dynasty’s third ruler in 1791. Most of the Betsimisaraka then fell under the rule of the…

Marc Ravalomanana: 2001 presidential election and crisis: In 2001 Ravalomanana challenged Didier Ratsiraka, the incumbent president for more than two decades, in the December presidential election. When the election results were made available, Ravalomanana’s lead over Ratsiraka appeared narrow enough to necessitate a runoff vote (required when neither candidate wins a majority). Ravalomanana, however, claimed that…

grenadier, any of about 300 species of abundant deep-sea fishes of the family Macrouridae found along the ocean bottom in warm and temperate regions. The typical grenadier is a large-headed fish with a tapered body ending in a long, ratlike tail bordered above and below by the anal and second

supplejack, any of various woody climbing plants with pliant, tough stems, particularly Berchemia scandens, of the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae), also known as rattan vine. B. scandens occurs in the central and southern United States. It climbs to the tops of trees and has alternate, elliptical

Urbano Rattazzi was a Piedmontese lawyer and statesman who held many important cabinet positions in the early years of the Italian Republic, including that of prime minister; his ambiguous policies brought him into conflict with the Italian hero Giuseppe Garibaldi and ultimately caused his

Hameln: …notable half-timbered Renaissance houses, the Rattenfängerhaus (“Ratcatcher’s House”) and the Hochzeitshaus (“Wedding House”). Pop. (2003 est.) 58,902.

jequirity bean: …traditional unit of weight (ratti), equivalent to about 0.91 carat, in India.

Pius XI was an Italian pope from 1922 to 1939, one of the most important modern pontiffs. His papal motto, “Pax Christi in regno Christi” (“The peace of Christ in the kingdom of Christ”), illustrated his work to construct a new Christendom based on world peace. Ordained in 1879, he became a

Sir Terence Rattigan was an English playwright, a master of the well-made play. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Oxford, Rattigan had early success with two farces, French Without Tears (performed 1936) and While the Sun Shines (performed 1943). The Winslow Boy (performed 1946), a drama

Sir Terence Rattigan was an English playwright, a master of the well-made play. Educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Oxford, Rattigan had early success with two farces, French Without Tears (performed 1936) and While the Sun Shines (performed 1943). The Winslow Boy (performed 1946), a drama

Boca Juniors: …Boca, including former Argentine captain Antonio Rattin and strikers Gabriel Batistuta, Claudio Caniggia, and Carlos Tevez. Diego Maradona had two spells at the club, at the start and end of his career, and this pattern has been followed by other players, including Juan Román Riquelme and Martín Palermo (who is…

Günter Grass: Other novels and fictional works: …nuclear war; Die Rättin (1986; The Rat), a vision of the end of the human race that expresses Grass’s fear of nuclear holocaust and environmental disaster; and Unkenrufe (1992; The Call of the Toad), which concerns the uneasy relationship between Poland and Germany.

black-tailed rattlesnake: …black tail ending in a rattle. Adult length averages 0.9 meter (3 feet), though older males may exceed 1.2 meters (4 feet) in length. Coloration is greenish gray, gray, or yellow, with a body pattern of dark irregular bands, some of which widen above into diamond-shaped blotches with yellow centers.…

rattle, percussion instrument consisting of resonant objects strung together and set in a sliding frame or enclosed in a container such that when it is shaken the parts strike against each other, producing sounds. In many societies, rattles are associated with the supernatural and accompany

U2: On Rattle and Hum (1988), a double album and documentary movie, the band explored American roots music—blues, country, gospel, and folk—with typical earnestness but were pilloried by some critics who found the project pompous.

percussion instrument: Membranophones: …rattle—an early application of the rattle drum principle. As in Africa and the Americas, ritual drums of Asia have been associated with human sacrifice; in China, drums were consecrated in the 7th and 6th centuries bce by smearing them with sacrificial blood, usually that of a war captive.

Simon Rattle is a British conductor well known for his performances of works by Gustav Mahler as well as by Arnold Schoenberg and other composers of the Second Viennese School. Rattle is also recognized for his passionate efforts in music education. As a boy, Rattle learned to play piano, violin,

Simon Rattle is a British conductor well known for his performances of works by Gustav Mahler as well as by Arnold Schoenberg and other composers of the Second Viennese School. Rattle is also recognized for his passionate efforts in music education. As a boy, Rattle learned to play piano, violin,

Thomas Henry Huxley: The Rattlesnake voyage: To repay his debts, he entered the navy and served (1846–50) as assistant surgeon on HMS Rattlesnake surveying Australia’s Great Barrier Reef and New Guinea. With his microscope lashed to a table in the chart room, he studied the structure and growth of…

rattlesnake, any of 33 species of venomous New World vipers characterized by a segmented rattle at the tip of the tail that produces a buzzing sound when vibrated. Rattlesnakes are found from southern Canada to central Argentina but are most abundant and diverse in the deserts of the southwestern

Ophioglossaceae: The rattlesnake fern (B. virginianum) of North America is sometimes placed by itself in the genus Botrypus.

quaking grass: …are cultivated as ornamentals, including big quaking grass, or rattlesnake grass (Briza maxima), perennial quaking grass (B. media), and little quaking grass, or shivery grass (B. minor).

Gadsden flag, historical flag used by Commodore Esek Hopkins, the United States’ first naval commander in chief, as his personal ensign during the American Revolution (1775–83). The flag features a coiled rattlesnake above the words “Don’t Tread on Me” on a yellow background. The flag was one of

bugbane, any of about 15 species of tall perennial herb constituting the genus Cimicifuga of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) native to North Temperate woodlands. They are said to put bugs to flight by the rustling of their dried seed heads. In North America the American bugbane, or summer

Giulio Bizzozero: …tuberculosis; and Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone, who demonstrated the transmissibility of tetanus.

rat, (genus Rattus), the term generally and indiscriminately applied to numerous members of several rodent families having bodies longer than about 12 cm, or 5 inches. (Smaller thin-tailed rodents are just as often indiscriminately referred to as mice.) In scientific usage, rat applies to any of 56

rat: Natural history: …tropical species, such as the rice-field rat (R. argentiventer) and Malayan field rat (R. tiomanicus), primarily consume the insects, snails, slugs, and other invertebrates found in habitats of forest patches, secondary growth, scrubby and fallow fields, palm plantations, and rice fields.

rat: Natural history: …but some, such as the Philippine forest rat (R. everetti), also eat insects and worms. Other tropical species, such as the rice-field rat (R. argentiventer) and Malayan field rat (R. tiomanicus), primarily consume the insects, snails, slugs, and other invertebrates found in habitats of forest patches, secondary growth, scrubby and…

rat: Classification and paleontology: nitidus, R. exulans, and R. tanezumi) extend outside continental Southeast Asia, from the Sunda Shelf to New Guinea and beyond to some Pacific islands, and most likely represent introductions facilitated by human activities.

rat: General features: …are about the size of Hoffman’s rat (R. hoffmanni), native to the Indonesian island of Sulawesi and weighing 95 to 240 grams (3.4 to 8.5 ounces), with a body length of 17 to 21 cm (6.7 to 8.3 inches) and a tail about as long. One of the smaller species…

rat: General features: …rest uniformly white, as in Hoogerwerf’s rat (R. hoogerwerfi) and the white-tailed rat of Sulawesi.

rat: General features: …as the Mentawai rat (R. lugens) native to islands off the west coast of Sumatra. It has brownish black upperparts and a grayish black belly. Although the tail is uniformly gray to dark brown in most rats (sometimes nearly black), a few species show one of two bicoloured patterns:…

rat: General features: …a pure white underside; the Himalayan field rat (R. nitidus) has a brown back, gray underparts, and feet of pearly white. Others have very dark fur, such as the Mentawai rat (R. lugens) native to islands off the west coast of Sumatra. It has brownish black upperparts and a grayish…

brown rat, (Rattus norvegicus), species of rat found on every continent except Antarctica. The alternate name “Norway rat” came from a false hypothesis widely believed in 18th-century England that the rats were native to Norway. Research has confirmed, however, that the brown rat is native to Asia,

rat: General features: …of the smaller species is Osgood’s rat (R. osgoodi) of southern Vietnam, with a body 12 to 17 cm long and a somewhat shorter tail. At the larger extreme is the Sulawesian white-tailed rat (R. xanthurus), measuring 19 to 27 cm long with a tail of 26 to 34 cm.

rat: …the Norway rat), and the house rat, R. rattus (also called the black rat, ship rat, or roof rat), live virtually everywhere that human populations have settled; the house rat is predominant in warmer climates, and the brown rat dominates in temperate regions, especially urban areas. Most likely originating in…

rat: General features: …Sulawesian white-tailed rat and the Sikkim rat (R. remotus) of India, long and slender guard hairs resembling whiskers extend 4 to 6 cm beyond the coat on the back and rump. Very few Rattus species have spiny fur. Hoffman’s rat also exhibits the basic colour pattern seen in the genus—upperparts…

rat: Classification and paleontology: exulans, and R. tanezumi) extend outside continental Southeast Asia, from the Sunda Shelf to New Guinea and beyond to some Pacific islands, and most likely represent introductions facilitated by human activities.

rat: Natural history: argentiventer) and Malayan field rat (R. tiomanicus), primarily consume the insects, snails, slugs, and other invertebrates found in habitats of forest patches, secondary growth, scrubby and fallow fields, palm plantations, and rice fields.

rat: General features: nitidus) and the Turkestan rat (R. turkestanicus), or brown all around the basal third to half of the tail with the rest uniformly white, as in Hoogerwerf’s rat (R. hoogerwerfi) and the white-tailed rat of Sulawesi.

rat: General features: …the larger extreme is the Sulawesian white-tailed rat (R. xanthurus), measuring 19 to 27 cm long with a tail of 26 to 34 cm.

squirrel: General features: …are the four species of Oriental giant squirrels (genus Ratufa) native to the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. Weighing 1.5 to 3 kg (3 to almost 7 pounds), it has a body length of 25 to 46 cm (about 10 to 18 inches) and a tail about as long. Two…

Irina Georgiyevna Ratushinskaya was a Russian lyric poet, essayist, and political dissident. Ratushinskaya was educated at Odessa University (M.A., 1976) and taught physics in Odessa from 1976 to 1978. For her advocacy of human rights, she was sentenced to serve seven years in a labour camp; she

Friedrich Ratzel was a German geographer and ethnographer and a principal influence in the modern development of both disciplines. He originated the concept of Lebensraum, or “living space,” which relates human groups to the spatial units where they develop. Though Ratzel pointed out the propensity

Cheers: …salt-of-the-earth mailman Cliff Clavin (John Ratzenberger).

Gustav Ratzenhofer was an Austrian soldier, military jurist, and sociologist. He was a Social Darwinist who conceived of society as a universe of conflicting ethnic groups, and who thought that sociology could guide the human species into higher forms of association. Ratzenhofer’s formal education

Benedict XVI was the bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church from 2005 to 2013. Prior to his election as pope, Benedict led a distinguished career as a theologian and as prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. His papacy faced several challenges, including a decline

Sir Benegal Narsing Rau was one of the foremost Indian jurists of his time. He helped draft the constitutions of Burma (Myanmar) in 1947 and India in 1950. As India’s representative on the United Nations Security Council (1950–52), he was serving as president of the council when it recommended

Raub, town, central Peninsular (West) Malaysia, about 50 miles (80 km) north-northeast of Kuala Lumpur. Situated in the eastern foothills of the Main Range, it began in the 1880s as a gold-mining settlement. Raub is the Malay word meaning “scoop with one’s hands,” and at one time the ore was

Adolf Hitler: Hitler’s life and habits: …devoted to one of them, Geli, and it seems that his possessive jealousy drove her to suicide in September 1931. For weeks Hitler was inconsolable. Some time later Eva Braun, a shop assistant from Munich, became his mistress. Hitler rarely allowed her to appear in public with him. He would…

The Robbers, drama in five acts by Friedrich Schiller, published in 1781 and produced in 1782 as Die Räuber. Set in 16th-century Germany, The Robbers concerns the rivalry between the brothers Karl and Franz, both of whom operate outside conventional morality. A protest against official corruption,

Leonhard Frank: …first book, Die Räuberbande (1914; The Robber Band). The story of rebellious young boys who seek to create the ideal society but end up as “good citizens,” it embodies the main theme of his writings—the humorous exposure and realistic portrayal of the narrowness of the middle classes. While in Switzerland…

Neoclassical art: Central Europe: …von Wagner; and the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch.

Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown: By 1964 he and partner John Rauch had established the firm of Venturi & Rauch. Scott Brown attended the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa and London’s Architectural Association School of Architecture before going to the United States with her husband, the architect Robert Scott Brown (who was killed…

communitarianism: The third sector: The American political journalist Jonathan Rauch introduced the term “soft communitarianism” to refer to communitarianism that focuses on the role of civil society, in contrast to “hard,” East Asian communitarianism, which views the state as the primary social agent.

Western sculpture: Central Europe: …found in the sculpture of Matthias Rauchmiller at Trier (1675) and Legnica (Liegnitz) in Silesia (1677).

Orinoco River: Physiography of the Orinoco: …through a transitional zone, the Region of the Rapids (Región de los Raudales), where the Orinoco forces its way through a series of narrow passages among enormous granite boulders. The waters fall in a succession of rapids, ending with the Atures Rapids. In this region, the main tributaries are the…

crurotarsan: …the ornithosuchians (“bird crocodiles”), the rauisuchids (“Rau’s crocodiles”), and several single, ungrouped taxa. There is much disagreement concerning the evolutionary position of the ornithosuchids within the Crurotarsi, because they appear to possess both crocodilian and dinosaur-like features that paleontologists have not fully sorted out. In addition, there is much debate…

crurotarsan: …the ornithosuchians (“bird crocodiles”), the rauisuchids (“Rau’s crocodiles”), and several single, ungrouped taxa. There is much disagreement concerning the evolutionary position of the ornithosuchids within the Crurotarsi, because they appear to possess both crocodilian and dinosaur-like features that paleontologists have not fully sorted out. In addition, there is much debate…

Guri Dam, hydroelectric project and reservoir on the Caroní River, Bolívar State, eastern Venezuela, on the site of the former village of Guri (submerged by the reservoir), near the former mouth of the Guri River. The first stage of the facility was completed in 1969 as a 348-foot- (106-metre-)

Scopes Trial: Judge John Raulston ruled out any test of the law’s constitutionality or argument on the validity of evolutionary theory on the basis that Scopes, rather than the Butler law, was on trial. Raulston determined that expert testimony from scientists would be inadmissible.

Hermann Weyl: …of lectures on relativity, Weyl’s Raum, Zeit, Materie (1918; “Space, Time, Matter”) reveals his keen interest in philosophy and embodies the bulk of his findings on relativity. He produced the first unified field theory for which Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetic fields and the gravitational field appear as geometric properties of…

Rauma, city, southwestern Finland. It lies along the Gulf of Bothnia north-northwest of Turku. Rauma was first noted in official records in 1442. In 1550, King Gustav I Vasa of Sweden (which then governed Finland) ordered the inhabitants to move to newly founded Helsinki, and Rauma was virtually

Rauma, city, southwestern Finland. It lies along the Gulf of Bothnia north-northwest of Turku. Rauma was first noted in official records in 1442. In 1550, King Gustav I Vasa of Sweden (which then governed Finland) ordered the inhabitants to move to newly founded Helsinki, and Rauma was virtually

biogeography: Shantz, Hugh M. Raup, and others.

Maria Sibylla Merian: …published the first volume of Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung, und sonderbare Blumen-nahrung (“Caterpillars, Their Wondrous Transformation and Peculiar Nourishment from Flowers”; the second volume appeared in 1683), in which she depicted in detail the metamorphosis of moths and butterflies. Each insect was shown on or beside its plant food source…

Dubrovnik, port of Dalmatia, southeastern Croatia. Situated on the southern Adriatic Sea coast, it is usually regarded as the most picturesque city on the Dalmatian coast and is referred to as the “Pearl of the Adriatic.” Dubrovnik (derived from dubrava in Croatian, meaning “grove”) occupies a

Robert Rauschenberg was an American painter and graphic artist whose early works anticipated the Pop art movement. Rauschenberg knew little about art until he visited an art museum during World War II while serving in the U.S. Navy. He studied painting at the Kansas City Art Institute in 1946–47,

Robert Rauschenberg was an American painter and graphic artist whose early works anticipated the Pop art movement. Rauschenberg knew little about art until he visited an art museum during World War II while serving in the U.S. Navy. He studied painting at the Kansas City Art Institute in 1946–47,

Walter Rauschenbusch was a clergyman and theology professor who led the Social Gospel movement in the United States. The son of a Lutheran missionary to German immigrants in the United States, Rauschenbusch graduated from the Rochester Free Academy and then studied for four years in Germany,

David Baltimore: …to two RNA tumour viruses—Rauscher murine leukemia virus and Rous sarcoma virus—to discover whether a similar enzyme was at work in their replication. It was through these experiments that he discovered reverse transcriptase. This discovery proved an exception to the “central dogma” of genetic theory, which states that the…

Joseph Othmar von Rauscher was a cardinal and the influential tutor of the Habsburg emperor Francis Joseph; he was the primary engineer of the Austro-papal concordat of 1855. Raised to the priesthood in 1823, Rauscher was appointed professor of church history and canon law at the Salzburg lyceum in

Mayadhar Raut is an exponent of the Indian classical dance form odissi. As a child, Raut was a gotipua, a boy designated to learn a style of temple dance previously performed by female temple dancers. At age eight he became a dancer with the Orissa Theatre. He went to Puri’s Annapurna Theatre in

Ondangwa: Martii Rautanen, an early missionary living in Ondangwa, created a system for writing a local Owambo language. Formerly the residence of the Owambo commissioner general (more recently relocated at Oshakati, 18 miles [29 km] to the northwest), Ondangwa remains an important transit point for Owambo…

Juhani Aho: His novel Rautatie (1884; “The Railway”), the story of an elderly couple’s first railway trip, is a Finnish classic. Influenced by contemporary Norwegian and French writers—Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Martinius Bjørnson, Guy de Maupassant, and particularly Alphonse Daudet—he described the life of the educated classes in Papin tytär…

Rauvolfia, genus of plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae), with 110 species of shrubs and trees native to tropical areas of the world. The flowers are small and usually white or greenish white in colour. The roots of many species contain an alkaloid called reserpine, first found in the Indian

antipsychotic drug: …to an Indian shrub, called Rauwolfia serpentina for its snakelike appearance, which historically was used to treat snake bites, insomnia, high blood pressure, and mental illness. Reserpine, the principal alkaloid of the plant, was first isolated in the 1950s and was used in the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure…

Rauvolfia, genus of plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae), with 110 species of shrubs and trees native to tropical areas of the world. The flowers are small and usually white or greenish white in colour. The roots of many species contain an alkaloid called reserpine, first found in the Indian

Unani medicine: Modes of treatment: …India as chhota chand (Rauwolfia serpentina). Subsequent pharmacological research determined that the plant was the source of a bioactive substance known as reserpine, which found use in Western medicine as a tranquilizer and as an antihypertensive agent (lowering abnormally high blood pressure). Those uses supported some of the medical…

Mīrkhwānd: …Persia, 1832; continued as The Rauzat-us-Safa; or, Garden of Purity, 1891–94). The work is composed of seven large volumes and a geographic appendix, sometimes considered an eighth volume. The history begins with the age of the pre-Islāmic Persian kings and surveys the major Muslim rulers of Iran up to the…

Samuel of Nehardea: …with those of Rav (Abba Arika, head of the academy at Sura), figure prominently in the Babylonian Talmud.

Henry IV: The achievements of the reign. of Henry IV: …a fanatical Roman Catholic named François Ravaillac.

Félix Ravaisson was a French philosopher whose writings had an extensive influence in the Roman Catholic world during the 19th century. He was appointed inspector general of public libraries (1839–46, 1846–53) and later served as inspector general of higher education, a post he held until 1880. His

Félix Ravaisson was a French philosopher whose writings had an extensive influence in the Roman Catholic world during the 19th century. He was appointed inspector general of public libraries (1839–46, 1846–53) and later served as inspector general of higher education, a post he held until 1880. His

Marc Ravalomanana is a Malagasy entrepreneur and politician who served as president of Madagascar (2002–09). He stepped down in the midst of a political crisis in 2009 and went into exile before returning in 2014. Ravalomanana was a candidate in Madagascar’s 2018 and 2023 presidential elections.

Ravana, in Hinduism, the 10-headed king of the demons (rakshasas). His abduction of Sita and eventual defeat by her husband Rama are the central incidents of the popular epic the Ramayana (“Rama’s Journey”). Ravana ruled in the kingdom of Lanka (probably not the same place as modern Sri Lanka),

Cayenne, capital and Atlantic Ocean port of French Guiana. It is located at the northwestern end of Cayenne Island, which is formed by the estuaries of the Cayenne and Mahury rivers. Founded in 1643 by the French as La Ravardière, it was reoccupied in 1664 after destruction by the Indians and was

Balearic Beat: Britain’s rave culture and the sound that powered it were the product of a cornucopia of influences that came together in the late 1980s: the pulse of Chicago house music and the garage music of New York City, the semiconductor technology of northern California and…

Prince: Clash with record company and musical collaborations: In 1999, however, he released Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic under the Arista label; a collaboration with Sheryl Crow, Chuck D (of Public Enemy), Ani DiFranco, and others, the album received mixed reviews and failed to find a large audience.

Maurice Ravel was a French composer of Swiss-Basque descent, noted for his musical craftsmanship and perfection of form and style in such works as Boléro (1928), Pavane pour une infante défunte (1899; Pavane for a Dead Princess), Rapsodie espagnole (1907), the ballet Daphnis et Chloé (first

Maurice Ravel was a French composer of Swiss-Basque descent, noted for his musical craftsmanship and perfection of form and style in such works as Boléro (1928), Pavane pour une infante défunte (1899; Pavane for a Dead Princess), Rapsodie espagnole (1907), the ballet Daphnis et Chloé (first

Saul Bellow: In Ravelstein (2000) he presented a fictional version of the life of teacher and philosopher Allan Bloom. Five years after Bellow’s death, more than 700 of his letters, edited by Benjamin Taylor, were published in Saul Bellow: Letters (2010).

Mithraism: Worship, practices, and institutions: …were organized in seven grades: corax, Raven; nymphus, Bridegroom; miles, Soldier; leo, Lion; Perses, Persian; heliodromus, Courier of (and to) the Sun; pater, Father. To each rank belonged a particular mask (Raven, Persian, Lion) or dress (Bridegroom). The rising of the Mithraist

Native American religions: Diversity and common themes: Raven, whom Koyukon narratives credit with the creation of human beings, is only one among many powerful entities in the Koyukon world. He exhibits human weaknesses such as lust and pride, is neither all-knowing nor all-good, and teaches more often by counterexample than by his…

raven, any of approximately 10 species of heavy-billed dark birds, larger than crows. Closely related, both ravens and crows are species of the genus Corvus. The raven has a heavier bill and shaggier plumage than the crow, especially around the throat. The raven’s lustrous feathers also have a blue

Raven cycle, collection of trickster-transformer tales originating among the Native Americans of the Northwest Pacific Coast from Alaska to British Columbia. These traditional stories feature Raven as a culture hero, an alternately clever and stupid bird-human whose voracious hunger, greed, and

authority: French and Bertram Raven pointed out, however, these are only two of the common bases of social power, and the distinctions between authority and other forms of social influence are somewhat more subtle. For example, if the person no longer held a club but instead offered the…