Anthony Mann: The 1950s: westerns of Anthony Mann: … tale with Robert Ryan and Aldo Ray as a lieutenant and a sergeant, respectively, who must put aside their differences when they and their men are trapped behind enemy lines. The Tin Star (1957) used polar opposites Henry Fonda and Anthony Perkins to good effect as a seasoned bounty hunter…

Charlotte E. Ray was an American teacher and the first Black female lawyer in the United States. Ray studied at the Institution for the Education of Colored Youth in Washington, D.C., and by 1869 she was teaching at Howard University. There she studied law, receiving her degree in 1872. Her

Dixy Lee Ray was an American zoologist and government official who was a colourful and outspoken supporter of the nuclear industry, critic of the environmental movement, and proponent of making science more accessible to the public. A childhood fascination with the sea led to bachelor’s (1937) and

Little Rock Nine: Carlotta Walls, Jefferson Thomas, Gloria Ray, and Thelma Mothershed—became the centre of the struggle to desegregate public schools in the United States, especially in the South. The events that followed their enrollment in Little Rock Central High School provoked intense national debate about racial segregation and civil rights.

James Earl Ray was an American assassin of the African American civil-rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. Ray had been a small-time crook, a robber of gas stations and stores, who had served time in prison, once in Illinois and twice in Missouri, and received a suspended sentence in Los Angeles.

Jean Ray was a Belgian novelist, short-story writer, and journalist who is known for his crime fiction and narratives of horror and the fantastic in both French and Flemish (Dutch). De Kremer worked as a city employee, from 1910 to 1919, before working as a journalist (1919–40). He began to publish

Carian language: …analysis until 1981, when Egyptologist John Ray successfully exploited Carian-Egyptian bilingual tomb inscriptions to put decipherment on a sound basis. Subsequent analysis has confirmed the basic validity of Ray’s work, but many questions remain. The long-held suspicion that Carian is an Indo-European language of the Anatolian group has at least…

John Ray was a leading 17th-century English naturalist and botanist who contributed significantly to progress in taxonomy. His enduring legacy to botany was the establishment of species as the ultimate unit of taxonomy. Ray was the son of the village blacksmith in Black Notley and attended the

Man Ray was a photographer, painter, and filmmaker who was the only American to play a major role in both the Dada and Surrealist movements. The son of Jewish immigrants, Radnitzky grew up in New York City, where his father worked as a tailor and his mother a seamstress. He studied architecture,

Dixy Lee Ray was an American zoologist and government official who was a colourful and outspoken supporter of the nuclear industry, critic of the environmental movement, and proponent of making science more accessible to the public. A childhood fascination with the sea led to bachelor’s (1937) and

Nicholas Ray was an American motion-picture writer and director whose reputation as one of the most expressive and distinctive filmmakers of the late 1940s and the ’50s is grounded on a clutch of stylish heartfelt films that frequently focused on alienated outcasts, including They Live by Night

Rachael Ray is an American chef and television personality, who promotes quick, easy-to-prepare meals through her television programs, lifestyle magazine, and extensive line of cookbooks. Ray had experience in the kitchen from a young age, helping out in her family’s restaurants in Cape Cod. In her

Rachael Ray is an American chef and television personality, who promotes quick, easy-to-prepare meals through her television programs, lifestyle magazine, and extensive line of cookbooks. Ray had experience in the kitchen from a young age, helping out in her family’s restaurants in Cape Cod. In her

Satyajit Ray was a Bengali motion-picture director, writer, and illustrator who brought the Indian cinema to world recognition with Pather Panchali (1955; The Song of the Road) and its two sequels, known as the Apu Trilogy. As a director, Ray was noted for his humanism, his versatility, and his

vertebrate: Annotated classification: Subclass Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) Generally lack choanae; no fleshy base to paired fins; no internal nares; air sacs usually function as swim bladder; skeleton usually well ossified. Subclass Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes) Usually possess a choana; paired fins with a fleshy base over a bony

Serbia: Life in the Ottoman period: The situation of the Christian reaya (literally “flock”) was not one of unmitigated oppression. Christians were exempted from military service, and in some regions the tax burden was lighter than it had been previously, although they were taxed more heavily than the Muslim population. It was even possible for subject…

Gemma Chan: Parts in the late 2010s and early 2020s: …warrior princess Namaari in Disney’s Raya and the Last Dragon (2021); take on her second Marvel role, starring as Sersi in Eternals (2021), which was directed by Academy Award winner Chloé Zhao; and play the wife of the head of a seemingly utopian community in Olivia Wilde’s much-anticipated Don’t Worry,…

Central Kalimantan: Mount Raya, the highest peak in the Schwaner range, reaches 7,474 feet (2,278 metres). To the south of these mountains lies an expanse of alluvial plain that constitutes the central and southern parts of the province. The southern coastal lowlands are covered with wide swamp…

Serbia: Life in the Ottoman period: The situation of the Christian reaya (literally “flock”) was not one of unmitigated oppression. Christians were exempted from military service, and in some regions the tax burden was lighter than it had been previously, although they were taxed more heavily than the Muslim population. It was even possible for subject…

Bob Rafelson: Early work: …formed the independent production company Raybert. Together they created the zany TV situation comedy The Monkees (1966–68), inspired by the Beatles and more particularly by Richard Lester’s Beatles films, A Hard Day’s Night (1964) and Help! (1965). Rafelson had at first tried to focus the show on an existing rock…

Sam Rayburn was an American political leader, who served as speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives for nearly 17 years. He was first elected to the House in 1912 and served there continuously for 48 years 8 months, which at the time of his death was a record tenure. He was elected to Congress

Sam Rayburn was an American political leader, who served as speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives for nearly 17 years. He was first elected to the House in 1912 and served there continuously for 48 years 8 months, which at the time of his death was a record tenure. He was elected to Congress

Amur: …on in the south around Raychikhinsk, and gold and iron ore are found farther north. There is also some timber production. The Zeya dam and hydroelectric station on the Zeya River, completed in 1978 with a rated capacity of 1,260 megawatts, was surpassed by the Bureya dam and 1,700-megawatt hydroelectric…

Selim I: …Aleppo; August 24, 1516) and Raydāniyyah (near Cairo; January 22, 1517), thus bringing Syria, Egypt, and Palestine under Ottoman rule. In Cairo the sharif of Mecca presented Selim with the keys to that holy city, a symbolic gesture acknowledging Selim as the leader of the Islamic world.

Arabian Desert: Physiography: The gravel plains of Raydāʾ and Abū Baḥr, and adjacent areas covered by sand, formed the delta of the Dawāsir-Jawb system. The remnants of several of the deltas formed by those ancient rivers are as large in area as the delta of the Nile River. The northern Al-Ṣummān Plateau…

Martha Raye was an American entertainer who established her reputation as an irrepressible comic in a career that encompassed radio shows, theater, film, and entertaining U.S. troops stationed overseas. Raye began performing at the age of three, when she joined the family vaudeville act. She made

Wolf-Rayet star: …French astronomers Charles-Joseph-Étienne Wolf and Georges-Antoine-Pons Rayet.

Raiganj, city, northern West Bengal state, northeastern India. It is located in a broad plain on the Kulik River. Raiganj is an important agricultural-trade and jute-exporting centre and is connected by road with Ingraj Bazar and with Dinajpur (in Bangladesh). Rice milling is an important industry.

Ibn al-Bawwāb: …who reputedly invented the cursive rayḥānī and muḥaqqaq scripts. He refined several of the calligraphic styles invented a century earlier by Ibn Muqlah, including the naskhī and tawqī scripts, and collected and preserved for his students numerous original manuscripts of that master.

sound: Impedance: …per metre, often called the rayl, after Lord Rayleigh. The unit of acoustic impedance is the pascal second per cubic metre, called an acoustic ohm, by analogy to electrical impedance.

mass spectrometry: Thermal ionization: This effect is caused by Rayleigh distillation, wherein light isotopes evaporate faster than heavy ones. Studies done on isotopes that come from radioactive decay, such as those used in determining the ages of rocks, encounter this problem, but it is correctable using the measured values of the isotopes that are…

optical interferometer: …physicist Lord Rayleigh described the Rayleigh interference refractometer, still widely used for determining the refractive indices of gases and liquids. It is a split-beam instrument, like the Michelson interferometer. One beam serves as a reference, while the other is passed first through a material of known index of refraction and…

optics: The Rayleigh limit: As noted above, when a perfect lens forms an image of a point source of light, the emerging wave is a sphere centred about the image point. The optical paths from all points on the wave to the image are therefore equal, so…

fluid mechanics: Convection: …which is known as the Rayleigh number. If the Rayleigh number is less than 1,708, the fluid is stable—or perhaps it would be more accurate to say that it is metastable—even though it is warmer at the bottom than at the top. However, when 1,708 is exceeded, a pattern of…

Lord Rayleigh was an English physical scientist who made fundamental discoveries in the fields of acoustics and optics that are basic to the theory of wave propagation in fluids. He received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904 for his successful isolation of argon, an inert atmospheric gas. Strutt

Rayleigh scattering, dispersion of electromagnetic radiation by particles that have a radius less than approximately 110 the wavelength of the radiation. The process has been named in honour of Lord Rayleigh, who in 1871 published a paper describing this phenomenon. The angle through which sunlight

seismic wave: …principal surface waves are called Rayleigh waves after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh, who first mathematically demonstrated their existence. Rayleigh waves travel along the free surface of an elastic solid such as the Earth. Their motion is a combination of longitudinal compression and dilation that results in an elliptical motion…

Lord Rayleigh was an English physical scientist who made fundamental discoveries in the fields of acoustics and optics that are basic to the theory of wave propagation in fluids. He received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904 for his successful isolation of argon, an inert atmospheric gas. Strutt

Kate DiCamillo: DiCamillo also drew praise for Raymie Nightingale (2016), which centres on a young girl who, in an effort to get her adulterous father to return home, hopes to win the Little Miss Central Florida Tire competition. Other characters in the book include Louisiana Elefante, whose struggles after moving away from…

Raymond was the prince of Antioch (1136–49) who successfully resisted the attempts of the Byzantine emperor John II to establish control over the principality. Raymond was the younger son of William VII, count of Poitiers, in west-central France. In 1135 King Fulk of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,

Crossword Book Awards, any of a series of Indian literary awards established in 1998 by Indian book retailer Crossword, its stated aim being to create a prize equivalent to Western literary accolades such as the Booker Prize and the Pulitzer Prize. The Crossword was initially conceived as a single

Raymond III was the count of the crusaders’ state of Tripoli (1152–87) and twice regent of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1174–77, 1184–85). Raymond succeeded to the countship after the assassination of his father, Raymond II, in 1152. In his campaigns against the Muslims he was taken prisoner by

France: The principalities of the south: …status dated from 924, when Raymond III Pons (924–after 944) added control of coastal Gothia to that of Toulouse and its hinterland. Dynastic continuity, here as elsewhere, however, was badly interrupted, and none of the succeeding counts were able to organize a coherent lordship. Raymond IV of Saint-Gilles (1093–1105) acquired…

Raymond IV was the count of Toulouse (1093–1105) and marquis of Provence (1066–1105), the first—and one of the most effective—of the western European rulers who joined the First Crusade. He is reckoned as Raymond I of Tripoli, a county in the Latin East which he began to conquer from 1102 to 1105.

Spain: The medieval empire, 1035–1157: …fortunate among them, the cousins Raymond and Henry of Burgundy, married Alfonso VI’s daughters, Urraca and Teresa, and thereby became the ancestors of the dynasties that governed León and Portugal until the late 14th century.

Saint Raymond of Peñafort ; canonized 1601; feast day January 7) was a Catalan Dominican friar who compiled the Decretals of Gregory IX, a body of medieval legislation that remained part of church law until the Code of Canon Law was promulgated in 1917. He studied canon law at Bologna and taught

Raymond was the prince of Antioch (1136–49) who successfully resisted the attempts of the Byzantine emperor John II to establish control over the principality. Raymond was the younger son of William VII, count of Poitiers, in west-central France. In 1135 King Fulk of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,

Raymond IV was the count of Toulouse (1093–1105) and marquis of Provence (1066–1105), the first—and one of the most effective—of the western European rulers who joined the First Crusade. He is reckoned as Raymond I of Tripoli, a county in the Latin East which he began to conquer from 1102 to 1105.

Raymond Terrace, town, eastern New South Wales, Australia. It lies on the east bank of the Hunter River near its junction with the Williams River, just north of Newcastle. Founded in the 1830s, the town was named for a member of an exploring expedition in 1812 led by Gov. Lachlan Macquarie. An

France: Louis IX: The revolt of Raymond Trencavel, dispossessed heir to the viscounty of Béziers, halfheartedly supported by Raymond VII of Toulouse, was no more successful; its failure resulted in the vindictive destruction of the petty nobility of Languedoc, and many fiefs thereupon passed to the crown. In 1239 a childless…

Usher: Here I Stand, Raymond v. Raymond, and Coming Home: The follow-up album, Raymond v. Raymond (2010), continued to serve as a window into Usher’s private life, but it was a dark reflection of Here I Stand, as it traced the disintegration of his first marriage, to fashion designer Tameka Foster. In 2011 Raymond v. Raymond won a…

Raymond VI was the count of Toulouse from 1194, who at first tolerated the heretical Cathari in Languedoc, then (1209) joined the Albigensian Crusade against them and afterward fought the crusaders to save his own dominions. The son of Count Raymond V, Raymond VI was a nephew of King Louis VII of

Raymond VII was the count of Toulouse from 1222, who succeeded his father, Raymond VI, not only in the countship but also in having to face problems raised by the Albigensian Crusade against the heretical Cathari. Under his rule, the de facto independence of Toulouse from the French kingdom was

Alex Raymond was a U.S. comic-strip artist notable for his creation of a number of outstanding and successful adventure comic strips. At 18 Raymond went to work in a brokerage office on New York City’s Wall Street, but the stock market crash of 1929 ended his career in finance. He then worked

Alex Raymond was a U.S. comic-strip artist notable for his creation of a number of outstanding and successful adventure comic strips. At 18 Raymond went to work in a brokerage office on New York City’s Wall Street, but the stock market crash of 1929 ended his career in finance. He then worked

Antonin Raymond was a Czech-born U.S. architect who is especially noted for his work in Japan. His buildings there reveal that his understanding of and respect for Japanese tradition informed his Modernist sensibility. He was little known in his adopted country but was highly esteemed in Japan.

Don Raimundo was an archbishop and leading prelate of the 12th-century Spanish Christian church, whose patronage of the Toledan school of translators contributed greatly to medieval learning. Raimundo was one of the many French Cluniac monks who, under the leadership of Bernard of Périgord

open source: The Cathedral & the Bazaar: In 1997 computer programmer Eric Raymond (the author of this article) proposed a new theory of open source in his paper “The Cathedral & the Bazaar.” Raymond compared the centralization, secrecy, slow release tempo, and vertical management of traditional software development to a cathedral with its top-down hierarchal structure;…

Henry Jarvis Raymond was a U.S. journalist and politician who, as the first editor and chief proprietor of The New York Times (from 1851), did much to elevate the style and tone of contemporary newspapers and who was prominent in forming the Republican Party. Raymond worked for Horace Greeley on

United States Space Force: …chief of space operations was John W. Raymond. His previous experience included commanding the U.S. Space Command and directing space forces in their support of the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. One benefit of keeping a link between the USSF and the U.S. Air Force is avoiding organizational duplication,…

Usher is an American musician whose smooth vocals and sensual ballads helped establish him as a rhythm-and-blues superstar in the late 1990s and early 2000s. His hit singles include “You Make Me Wanna,” “Nice & Slow,” “U Remind Me,” and the rap collaboration “Yeah!” He is also known for his acting

Guillaume-Thomas Raynal, abbé de Raynal was a French writer and propagandist who helped set the intellectual climate for the French Revolution. Raynal was educated by the Jesuits and joined the order as a young man, but, after going to Paris to work for the church, he gave up religious life in

Battle of Bouvines: …Portugal, count of Flanders, and Renaud (Raynald) of Dammartin, count of Boulogne. The victory enhanced the power and the prestige of the French monarchy in France and in the rest of Europe.

Franche-Comté: History: …in 1127, a local count, Raynald III, refused to do homage to the German king, Lothar II (later Holy Roman emperor). Lothar tried to set up a rival in Raynald’s place, but, after 10 years of conflict, Raynald was victorious. Thereafter, he was the franc-comte (“free count”; German: Freigraf), and…

Reginald of Châtillon was a prince of Antioch (1153–60), one of the leading military figures of the Crusades between 1147 and 1187, whose reckless policy in raiding Muslim caravans during periods of truce led to the virtual destruction of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and the loss of most of its

skin disease: Blood vessels: In Raynaud’s phenomenon, the vascular spasm is severe, affecting the extremities and leading to attacks of cold, white fingers. Milder degrees of spasm, as well as increases in blood viscosity, may cause a purple discoloration of the skin (cyanosis), which may assume a reticulate pattern (livedo…

Raynaud syndrome, condition occurring primarily in young women that is characterized by spasms in the arteries to the fingers that cause the fingertips to become first pale and then cyanotic—bluish—upon exposure to cold or in response to emotional stress. Upon cessation of the stimulus, redness

Raynaud syndrome, condition occurring primarily in young women that is characterized by spasms in the arteries to the fingers that cause the fingertips to become first pale and then cyanotic—bluish—upon exposure to cold or in response to emotional stress. Upon cessation of the stimulus, redness

motivation: Classical conditioning: Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrated the development of an emotional response in a young boy using classical conditioning techniques. The presentation of a white rat was paired with the striking of a steel bar, which induced fear in the little boy. After only a few pairings, the…

François-Juste-Marie Raynouard was a French dramatist and Romance philologist who also played a part in the politics of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. Trained as a lawyer, Raynouard was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791. In 1793 he was imprisoned on political grounds but was

Miguel Hernández: …note in his best work, El rayo que no cesa (1936; “The Never-Ending Lightning”), a collection mostly of sonnets of great classical purity. El hombre acecha (1939; “The Man Who Lurks”) is a desolate book full of the horror of war and prison. The posthumous Cancionero y romancero de ausencias…

Man Ray: or photograms, which he called rayographs. He made them by placing objects directly on light-sensitive paper, which he exposed to light and developed. In 1922 a book of his collected rayographs, Les Champs délicieux (“The Delightful Fields”), was published, with an introduction by the influential Dada artist Tristan Tzara, who…

rayon, artificial textile material composed of regenerated and purified cellulose derived from plant sources. Developed in the late 19th century as a substitute for silk, rayon was the first man-made fibre. Rayon is described as a regenerated fibre because the cellulose, obtained from soft woods or

Rayong, town, southern Thailand. It lies southeast of Bangkok, on the northeastern coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Rayong is a fishing port and produces tapioca from locally grown cassava. Cassava, fruits, and rubber are the major products of the adjacent hinterland. Nearby beaches attract a growing

Rayonism, Russian art movement founded by Mikhail F. Larionov, representing one of the first steps toward the development of abstract art in Russia. Larionov exhibited one of the first Rayonist works, Glass, in 1912 and wrote the movement’s manifesto that same year (though it was not published

Rayonnant style, French building style (13th century) that represents the height of Gothic architecture. During this period architects became less interested in achieving great size than in decoration, which took such forms as pinnacles, moldings, and especially window tracery. The style’s name

Victor Hugo: Success (1830–51): …both personal and philosophical; and Les Rayons et les ombres (1840; “Sunlight and Shadows”), in which the poet, renewing these different themes, indulges his gift for colour and picturesque detail. But Hugo was not content merely to express personal emotions; he wanted to be what he called the “sonorous echo”…

Gilles de Rais was a Breton baron, marshal of France, and man of wealth whose distinguished career ended in a celebrated trial for Satanism, abduction, and child murder. His name was later connected with the story of Bluebeard. At an early age Rais distinguished himself militarily, fighting first

Raytheon Company, major American industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in defense and aerospace electronics. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959. Its electronics and defense-systems units produce air-, sea-, and

Raytheon Company, major American industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in defense and aerospace electronics. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959. Its electronics and defense-systems units produce air-, sea-, and

Raytheon Company, major American industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in defense and aerospace electronics. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959. Its electronics and defense-systems units produce air-, sea-, and

Argentina: The arts of Argentina: …as the antinovel Rayuela (1963; Hopscotch) by the Argentine novelist Julio Cortázar. Adolfo Bioy Casares, a colleague of Borges, is particularly well known for his stories. Also notable is Ernesto Sábato, author of the fictional work El túnel (1948; Eng. trans. The Outsider) and chair of the commission that produced…

Rayy, formerly one of the great cities of Iran. The remains of the ancient city lie on the eastern outskirts of the modern city of Shahr-e Rey, which itself is located just a few miles southeast of Tehrān. A settlement at the site dates from the 3rd millennium bce. Rayy is featured in the Avesta

Rayy ware, in Islamic ceramics, style of pottery found at Rayy, near Tehrān, and dating from the 12th century. Particularly characteristic is a fine minai (a kind of enamel) painting. Fine pottery with bold carving, occasional piercing, and translucent glaze is typical, as is a range of matte

philosophy of law: Joseph Raz: Raz explored in greater depth than Hart or Kelsen the idea that law claims the right to tell citizens what they must do—what Raz called law’s claim to authority. But what is authority? Raz defended the “service conception” of authority, according to which…

Alcides Arguedas: …novels about the Indians, especially Raza de bronce (1919; “Race of Bronze”), an epic portrayal of the travels of a group of Bolivian Indians, ending with their extermination by Europeans. His exploration of the Indian problem foreshadowed the Indianista novel of the 1930s and ’40s in Latin America.

Tun Haji Abdul Razak bin Hussein was the prime minister, foreign minister, and defense minister of Malaysia from 1970 to 1976. A lawyer by training, Abdul Razak joined the civil service in 1950, entered politics in 1955, and was a key figure in gaining his country’s independence from Britain in

Hyderabad: History: …in 1947, violence by the Razakars—a Muslim militia—against Hindu communities drew the attention of the Indian government. In September 1948 the Indian army intervened, invading Hyderabad and easily routing the nizam’s forces. Although loss of life during the military operation was minor, it was followed by an outburst of looting…

Armenia: Drainage: …the Akhuryan (130 miles), the Hrazdan (90 miles), the Arpa (80 miles), and the Vorotan (Bargyushad; 111 miles), serve to irrigate most of Armenia. The tributaries of the Kura—the Debed (109 miles), the Aghstev (80 miles), and others—pass through Armenia’s northeastern regions. Lake Sevan, with a capacity in excess of

Razgrad, town, northeastern Bulgaria, on the Beli Lom River. It is the largest producer of antibiotics in Bulgaria and also manufactures concrete, porcelain, and glass and is an agricultural centre for grain, vegetables, and timber. Between the 15th and the 19th century, Razgrad was Turkish.

Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Fadeyev: …first important novel, Razgrom (1927; The Nineteen), which deals with a ragged band of 19 Red guerrilla fighters trapped between the Whites and the Japanese. Each of the 19 characters is treated in the round. Especially notable is the portrait of their leader, the positive hero Levinson, a disciplined communist…

al-Rāzī was a celebrated alchemist and Muslim philosopher who is also considered to have been the greatest physician of the Islamic world. One tradition holds that al-Rāzī was already an alchemist before he gained his medical knowledge. After serving as chief physician in a Rayy hospital, he held a

al-Rāzī was a celebrated alchemist and Muslim philosopher who is also considered to have been the greatest physician of the Islamic world. One tradition holds that al-Rāzī was already an alchemist before he gained his medical knowledge. After serving as chief physician in a Rayy hospital, he held a

Fakhr ad-Dīn ar-Rāzī was a Muslim theologian and scholar, author of one of the most authoritative commentaries on the Qurʾān in the history of Islām. His aggressiveness and vengefulness created many enemies and involved him in numerous intrigues. His intellectual brilliance, however, was

Georgian literature: The 20th century: Vazha-Pshavela (pseudonym of Luka Razikashvili) is modern Georgia’s greatest genius. His finest works are tragic narrative poems (Stumar-maspindzeli [1893; “Host and Guest”], Gvelis mchameli [1901; “The Snake-Eater”]) that combine Caucasian folk myth with human tragedy. Young Georgian poets and prose writers were subsequently inspired by…

Stenka Razin was a leader of a major Cossack and peasant rebellion on Russia’s southeastern frontier (1670–71). Born into a well-to-do Don Cossack family, Stenka Razin grew up amid the tension caused by the inability of runaway serfs, who were continually escaping from Poland and Russia to the Don

India: Consolidation of the sultanate: …rulers, Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziyyah (Raziyyat al-Dīn) to be his successor. By refusing shelter to the Muslim Jalāl al-Dīn Mingburnu (the last Khwārezm-Shah) against the pagan Genghis Khan, he politely asserted that the sultanate in Delhi, even though a sequel to a Central Asian social and political struggle, was…

India: Consolidation of the sultanate: …rulers, Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziyyah (Raziyyat al-Dīn) to be his successor. By refusing shelter to the Muslim Jalāl al-Dīn Mingburnu (the last Khwārezm-Shah) against the pagan Genghis Khan, he politely asserted that the sultanate in Delhi, even though a sequel to a Central Asian social and political struggle, was…

Ali Razmara was an Iranian army officer and government official who was prime minister of Iran from 1950 to 1951. Razmara graduated from the French military academy at Saint-Cyr in 1925. After serving in the pacification campaigns in the Kurdistan and Laristan regions of Iran under Reza Khan (later

Ali Razmara was an Iranian army officer and government official who was prime minister of Iran from 1950 to 1951. Razmara graduated from the French military academy at Saint-Cyr in 1925. After serving in the pacification campaigns in the Kurdistan and Laristan regions of Iran under Reza Khan (later