Canada: The union of Canada: The Reciprocity Treaty (1854) between Canada and the United States eliminated customs tariffs between the two, and the resulting increase in trade with the United States—which in part replaced trade with the United Kingdom—led to an economic boom in Canada. Economic growth was especially stimulated after…

Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, free-trade agreement between the United States and the Hawaiian kingdom that guaranteed a duty-free market for Hawaiian sugar in exchange for special economic privileges for the United States that were denied to other countries. The treaty helped establish the groundwork

récit, a brief novel, usually with a simple narrative line. One of the writers who consciously used the form was André Gide. Both L’Immoraliste (1902; The Immoralist) and La Porte étroite (1909; Strait Is the Gate) are examples of the récit. Both are studiedly simple but deeply ironic tales in

David Rabe: …other works included the novels Recital of the Dog (1993), a work of black humour; Dinosaurs on the Roof (2008); and Girl by the Road at Night (2009). A Primitive Heart (2005) is a collection of his short stories.

recitative, style of monody (accompanied solo song) that emphasizes and indeed imitates the rhythms and accents of spoken language, rather than melody or musical motives. Modeled on oratory, recitative developed in the late 1500s in opposition to the polyphonic, or many-voiced, style of

recitative: The second variety, recitativo stromentato, or accompanied recitative, has stricter rhythm and more involved, often orchestral accompaniment. Used at dramatically important moments, it is more emotional in character. Its vocal line is more melodic, and typically it leads into a formal aria.

recitative: Recitativo secco (“dry recitative”) is sung with a free rhythm dictated by the accents of the words. Accompaniment, usually by continuo (cello and harpsichord), is simple and chordal. The melody approximates speech by using only a few pitches. The second variety, recitativo stromentato, or accompanied…

recitative: The second variety, recitativo stromentato, or accompanied recitative, has stricter rhythm and more involved, often orchestral accompaniment. Used at dramatically important moments, it is more emotional in character. Its vocal line is more melodic, and typically it leads into a formal aria.

Blondel de Nesle: …in the 13th century romance Récits d’un ménestrel de Reims (“Narrative of a Minstrel of Reims”), that he played a part in the discovery and release of King Richard I of England from his imprisonment (1192–94) by the Holy Roman emperor Henry VI.

Victor Fleming: The 1930s: Reckless (1935), however, was one of Fleming’s rare misfires at MGM. The musical featured Harlow—though her dancing scenes were performed by doubles and her singing was dubbed—and it proved controversial for a plotline that seemed to draw on the 1932 suicide of her husband, Paul…

Bryan Adams: His fourth album, Reckless (1984), was his most successful. Later recordings included Into the Fire (1987), Waking up the Neighbours (1991), So Far So Good (1993), 11 (2008), Bare Bones (2010), Tracks of My Years (2014), Get Up (2015), and Shine a Light (2019). In addition, Adams and…

Renata Adler: …also wrote the nonfiction work Reckless Disregard: Westmoreland v. CBS et al., Sharon v. Time (1986), an investigation into libel suits brought by American and Israeli generals against major American news organizations. She also published Irreparable Harm: The U.S. Supreme Court and the Decision That Made George W. Bush President…

Walter Reckless was an American criminologist known for his containment theory of criminology, which stated that juvenile delinquency commonly arises from a breakdown in moral and social forces that otherwise “contain” such behavior. Reckless studied sociology at the University of Chicago (Ph.D.,

Walter Reckless was an American criminologist known for his containment theory of criminology, which stated that juvenile delinquency commonly arises from a breakdown in moral and social forces that otherwise “contain” such behavior. Reckless studied sociology at the University of Chicago (Ph.D.,

Recklinghausen, city, North Rhine–Westphalia Land (state), western Germany. The city is situated on the northern edge of the Ruhr industrial region, north of Essen, and has port facilities on the Rhine-Herne Canal. Originally a Saxon settlement that became an imperial town under Charlemagne, it

Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen was a German pathologist, best known for his descriptions of two disorders, each called Recklinghausen’s disease: multiple neurofibromatosis (1882), characterized by numerous skin tumours associated with areas of pigmentation, and osteitis fibrosa cystica (1891),

mathematics: Islamic mathematics to the 15th century: … (died 1429), whose work The Reckoners’ Key summarizes most of the arithmetic of his time and includes sections on algebra and practical geometry as well. Among al-Kāshī’s works is a masterful computation of the value of 2π, which, when expressed in decimal fractions, is accurate to 16 places, as well…

eschatology: Medieval and Reformation millennialism: …of the millennium, Bede’s masterwork, The Reckoning of Time, concluded with an extensive verbatim quotation of Augustine’s response to Hesychius regarding the proper eschatological attitude. By the mid-5900s Bede’s chronology and Easter Tables were adopted widely, and, at the approach of 6000 am II, with the exception of a few,…

John Grisham: Other novels: Grisham’s later legal thrillers include The Reckoning (2018), about a decorated World War II soldier who kills a pastor after returning to Mississippi, and The Guardians (2019), in which a lawyer attempts to exonerate a man convicted of murder. In A Time for Mercy (2020), Grisham continued the story of…

Randall Robinson: He went on to write The Reckoning: What Blacks Owe to Each Other (2002), in which he criticized prominent and wealthy African Americans for not banding together to act substantively to end the poverty and crime that afflict many Black communities. He maintained that racial disharmony cannot be solved until…

land reclamation, the process of improving lands to make them suitable for a more intensive use. Reclamation efforts may be concerned with the improvement of rainfall-deficient areas by irrigation, the removal of detrimental constituents from salty or alkali lands, the diking and draining of tidal

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, section of the U.S. Department of the Interior charged with the construction and management of canals, dams, and hydroelectric power plants. Over its history the bureau has transformed more than 10 million acres (about 4 million hectares) of arid land in the American

history of publishing: The 19th century: Even more successful was Reclams Universal-Bibliothek, begun in 1867. An important factor in this series, as in others later, was the release of works through the expiration of copyright.

k.d. lang: …after graduating, she helped form the Reclines, a Cline tribute band, in 1983. Their debut album, A Truly Western Experience (1984), garnered attention and resulted in lang signing with an American label.

Pegu: …most lifelike of all the reclining Buddha figures; allegedly built in 994, it was lost when Pegu was destroyed in 1757 but was rediscovered under a cover of jungle growth in 1881. From the nearby Kalyani Sima (“Hall of Ordination”), founded by the Mon king Dhammazedi (1472–92), spread one of…

Barbara Hepworth: Works such as Reclining Figure (1932) resemble rounded biomorphic forms and natural stones; they seem to be the fruit of long weathering instead of the hard work with a chisel they actually represent. In 1933 Hepworth married (her second husband; the first was the sculptor John Skeaping) the…

Henry Moore: Changes wrought by World War II: …in 1949; and the large Reclining Figure for the 1951 Festival of Britain. The death of his mother in 1944, and the birth of his only child, Mary, in 1946, made the theme of the family—particularly the mother-and-child relationship—a more personal one that Moore treated in several major works in…

Fujita Tsuguharu: …against an ivory background (Reclining Nude with Toile de Jouy) that he showed at the 1922 Salon d’Automne was a runaway success and led to a hugely lucrative decade for Fujita. He became known for his portraits, self-portraits, nudes, city scenes, and drawings and paintings of cats. He also…

Lucas Cranach, the Elder: Paintings: His Reclining River Nymph at the Fountain (1518) shows with what assurance he translated a Renaissance model—Giorgione’s Venus—into his personal language of linear arabesque. This work inaugurated a long series of paintings of Venus, Lucretia, the Graces, the judgment of Paris, and other subjects that serve…

Élisée Reclus was a French geographer and anarchist who was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1892 for La Nouvelle Géographie universelle. He was educated at the Protestant college of Montauban and studied geography under Carl Ritter in Berlin. Having identified himself

Élisée Reclus was a French geographer and anarchist who was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1892 for La Nouvelle Géographie universelle. He was educated at the Protestant college of Montauban and studied geography under Carl Ritter in Berlin. Having identified himself

hermit, one who retires from society, primarily for religious reasons, and lives in solitude. In Christianity the word (from Greek erēmitēs, “living in the desert”) is used interchangeably with anchorite, although the two were originally distinguished on the basis of location: an anchorite selected

William Wordsworth: The Recluse and The Prelude: The second consequence of Wordsworth’s partnership with Coleridge was the framing of a vastly ambitious poetic design that teased and haunted him for the rest of his life. Coleridge had projected an enormous poem to be called “The Brook,” in…

Tahar Ben Jelloun: …research, La Réclusion solitaire (Solitaire), about the misery of the North African immigrant worker; it was also staged as a play, Chronique d’une solitude (“Chronicle of Loneliness”). In the same year, he published Les Amandiers sont morts de leurs blessures (“The Almond Trees Are Dead from Their Wounds”)—poems and…

George A. Miller: Miller stressed the importance of recoding—the reorganization of information into fewer units with more bits of information per unit—as a central feature of human thought processes. Recoding increases the quantity of data that one can process effectively and can help to overcome the seven-item information-processing limit. Miller held that the…

saint: Modes of recognition: The basic motive for the belief in and veneration of saints is, primarily, the recognition by people of religious persons whom they view as holy. In order for a religious personage (e.g., prophet) to be recognized as a saint, it…

international law: Recognition: Recognition is a process whereby certain facts are accepted and endowed with a certain legal status, such as statehood, sovereignty over newly acquired territory, or the international effects of the grant of nationality. The process of recognizing as a state a new entity that…

recognition, in psychology, a form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered; in such situations a correct response can be identified when presented but may not be reproduced in the absence of such a stimulus. Recognizing a

government economic policy: The problem of time lags: …lag in economic policy: the recognition lag, the decision lag, and the effect lag.

Western painting: Germany: …as seen in Cornelius’ “The Recognition of Joseph by His Brethren” (1815–16; National Gallery, Berlin). Even Overbeck, an articulate leader and a lucid draftsman, could not escape, in his “Joseph Being Sold by His Brethren” (1816–17; National Gallery, Berlin), the self-conscious naïveté common to many of the Nazarenes. This naïveté…

restriction enzyme: These regions are called recognition sequences, or recognition sites, and are randomly distributed throughout the DNA. Different bacterial species make restriction enzymes that recognize different nucleotide sequences.

Clementine literature: …Alexandria; (3) the Homilies and Recognitions, along with an introductory letter supposed to have been written by St. Clement to St. James “the Lord’s brother”; (4) the Apostolic Constitutions, a collection of early Christian ecclesiastical law; and (5) five letters that are part of the False Decretals, a 9th-century collection…

William Gaddis: …publication of his controversial novel The Recognitions (1955). This book, rich in language and imagery, began as a parody of Faust but developed into a multileveled examination of spiritual bankruptcy that alternately was considered a brilliant masterpiece and incomprehensibly excessive. It became an underground classic, but, discouraged by the harsh…

recognizance, in Anglo-American law, obligation entered into before a judge or magistrate whereby a party (the recognizor) binds himself to owe a sum of money in the event that he does not perform a stipulated act. If he fails to perform the required act, the money may be collected in an

electromagnetic radiation: Resonance absorption and recoil: During the mid-1800s the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff observed that atoms and molecules emit and absorb electromagnetic radiation at characteristic frequencies and that the emission and absorption frequencies are the same for a given substance. Such resonance absorption should,

French 75: …of its time by its recoil system: the barrel and breech recoiled on rollers while the gun carriage itself remained in place instead of jumping or rolling backward.

radiation measurement: Compton scattering: …it scattered, producing an energetic recoil electron. The fraction of the photon energy that is transferred depends on the scattering angle. When the incoming photon is deflected only slightly, little energy is transferred to the electron. Maximum energy transfer occurs when the incoming photon is backscattered from the electron and…

radiation measurement: Fast neutrons: …it strikes, producing an energetic recoil nucleus. This recoil nucleus behaves in much the same way as any other heavy charged particle as it slows down and loses its energy in the absorber. The amount of energy transferred varies from nearly zero for a grazing angle scattering to a maximum…

radiation measurement: Fast-neutron detectors: …scattering from hydrogen is a recoiling energetic hydrogen nucleus, or recoil proton. One type of detector based on these recoil protons is a proportional counter containing a hydrogenous gas. Pure hydrogen can be used, but a more common choice is a heavier hydrocarbon such as methane in which the range…

radiation: Surface effects: …somewhat more complex mechanism is recoil sputtering, in which a struck, recoiling surface atom undergoes a random sequence of elastic scatterings in the target material, ultimately migrating back to, and through, the surface. Yet another mechanism is prompt thermal sputtering, in which energized atoms in thermal spikes created close to…

Mössbauer effect, nuclear process permitting the resonance absorption of gamma rays. It is made possible by fixing atomic nuclei in the lattice of solids so that energy is not lost in recoil during the emission and absorption of radiation. The process, discovered by the German-born physicist Rudolf

radiation measurement: Fast-neutron detectors: …scattering from hydrogen is a recoiling energetic hydrogen nucleus, or recoil proton. One type of detector based on these recoil protons is a proportional counter containing a hydrogenous gas. Pure hydrogen can be used, but a more common choice is a heavier hydrocarbon such as methane in which the range…

recoilless rifle, any of several antitank weapons developed during World War II. They are lightweight and can be operated by one or two men. Recoil was eliminated by allowing part of the propelling blast to escape to the rear. Disadvantages are a low muzzle velocity and consequent short range. See

recoilless rifle, any of several antitank weapons developed during World War II. They are lightweight and can be operated by one or two men. Recoil was eliminated by allowing part of the propelling blast to escape to the rear. Disadvantages are a low muzzle velocity and consequent short range. See

continental philosophy: Heidegger: In a later work, “Recollection in Metaphysics” (1961), he declared:

Plato: Early dialogues of Plato: …This is answered by the recollection theory of learning. What is called learning is really prompted recollection; one possesses all theoretical knowledge latently at birth, as demonstrated by the slave boy’s ability to solve geometry problems when properly prompted. (This theory will reappear in the Phaedo and in the Phaedrus.)…

Caroline Howard Gilman: …book form in 1834 as Recollections of a Housekeeper under the pseudonym Clarissa Packard. The book was a portrait of domestic life in New England; its Southern counterpart, Recollections of a Southern Matron, appeared in 1838. In these books, as in much of her writing, Gilman’s aim was to explain…

Caroline Howard Gilman: …New England; its Southern counterpart, Recollections of a Southern Matron, appeared in 1838. In these books, as in much of her writing, Gilman’s aim was to explain one section of the nation to the other, to point out the essential unity between them that she perceived as founded on the…

Australian literature: The century after settlement: …known novel of Australia was Recollections of Geoffry Hamlyn (1859) by Henry Kingsley, brother of Charles Kingsley. When the action at last moves from Devon to Australia, the story transposes into heroic romance, and it too manages to incorporate the sensational possibilities of the colonial experience: bushrangers and bushfires, floods…

Diane di Prima: …of a Beatnik (1969) and Recollections of My Life as a Woman: The New York Years (2001), a memoir of her abusive childhood in Brooklyn and her experiences as a woman in the male-dominated Beat movement.

Ernest Renan: Later writings of Ernest Renan: …d’enfance et de jeunesse (1883; Recollections of My Youth, 1883), in which he reconstructs his life so as to show that he was predestined to become a prêtre manqué (failed priest) and that, in spite of heavy odds, his wager on the hidden God had paid off in terms of…

Samuel Rogers: …Alexander Dyce and published as Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers (1856; edited by Morchard Bishop, 1952). In spite of his sharp tongue, he performed many kind offices for his friends. He aided Richard Sheridan in his dying days and helped to secure a pension for Henry Cary, translator…

battlefield medicine: …an experimental blood-clotting drug called recombinant activated factor VII to treat severe bleeding, despite some medical evidence that linked it to deadly blood clots.

therapeutics: Biological response modifiers: Recombinant interferon-α appears to be most effective against hairy-cell leukemia and chronic myelogenous leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma, and chronic hepatitis C. It is moderately effective in treating melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and carcinoid. It also can enhance the effectiveness of

recombinant DNA, a segment of DNA that is generated by combining genetic material from at least two different species. Such new genetic combinations are of value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry. A fundamental goal of genetics is to isolate, characterize, and manipulate genes.

recombinant DNA, a segment of DNA that is generated by combining genetic material from at least two different species. Such new genetic combinations are of value to science, medicine, agriculture, and industry. A fundamental goal of genetics is to isolate, characterize, and manipulate genes.

Atryn, trade name of recombinant human antithrombin, an anticoagulant agent used to prevent thrombosis—the formation of a clot in a blood vessel that may block or impede the flow of blood, causing a potentially life-threatening condition. Atryn was developed by U.S.-based GTC Biotherapeutics and

recombination, in genetics, primary mechanism through which variation is introduced into populations. Recombination takes place during meiosis, when maternal and paternal genes are regrouped in the formation of gametes (sex cells). Recombination occurs randomly in nature as a normal event of

crystal: Conducting properties of semiconductors: This recombination of electron and hole is easily accomplished from the exciton state, since the two particles are spatially nearby. If the electron and hole escape the exciton state by thermal fluctuation, they travel away from each other. Recombination is then less probable, since it occurs…

H II region: Chemical composition of H II regions: …faint emission lines that follow recombination, the process by which the higher stage of ionization captures an electron (usually at low energies) into a high level of the ion. Following recombination, there is a cascade from the high energy levels to the ground state, with photons in the observed emission…

heredity: Discovery and rediscovery of Mendel’s laws: …derived his second law: the law of recombination, or independent assortment of genes.

France: Diffusion of political power: …took one of two forms: commendation (a freeman placed himself under the protection of a more powerful lord for the duration of his life) and precarious contract (a powerful lord received certain services in return for the use of his land for a limited time under advantageous conditions). In the…

therapeutics: General requirements: Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), one of many sets of recommendations put out by various countries and organizations, have been established for these essential nutrients by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences. The RDAs are guidelines and not absolute minimums. Intake of less than…

hyperbaric chamber, sealed chamber in which a high-pressure environment is used primarily to treat decompression sickness, gas embolism, carbon monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene resulting from infection by anaerobic bacteria, tissue injury arising from radiation therapy for cancer (see cancer:

Bahia: History: …the territory began in the Recôncavo, where sugarcane and tobacco were grown for export and other crops raised for the settlers’ food. In the semiarid interior, cattle raising was considerably stimulated in the 18th century, when the discovery of gold and gems in the Diamantina Upland attracted more settlers.

absolution: and Eastern Orthodoxy, confession, or penance, is a sacrament. The power to absolve lies with the priest, who can grant release from the guilt of sin to sinners who are truly contrite, confess their sins, and promise to perform satisfaction to God. In the New Testament the grace of forgiveness…

Australia: Rural settlement: …hand, a stirring nationwide “reconciliation” has held out the promise of improved relationships.

Joe Manchin: …Act was considered under the reconciliation process, requiring a simple majority for passage.) Manchin was widely lambasted by fellow Democrats and was accused of being a tool of the energy industry.

exclusive economic zone: Examples of international disputes involving EEZs: …to regulate a foreign military’s reconnaissance activities in its EEZ. Under the interpretation of UNCLOS that the U.S. and most countries agree with, the coastal states do not have the right to regulate foreign military activities in their EEZs beyond 12 nautical miles from their coasts, and notification of foreign…

anthropology: Archaeology: These include archaeological survey (reconnaissance), excavation, and detailed analysis of recovered artifacts. Survey, or the discovery and recording of archaeological sites or other human-created features, such as roads and irrigation systems, is usually the first phase of archaeological research. Archaeological survey often employs aerial photographs and satellite…

military aircraft: Reconnaissance aircraft: At the outbreak of World War I, heavier-than-air craft were used only for visual reconnaissance, since their feeble engines could carry little more than a pilot and, in some cases, an observer aloft. They soon proved their worth in this mission, however, and…

spy satellite, spacecraft used by governments to monitor foreign military operations and other phenomena involving national security. The earliest reconnaissance satellites were developed in the United States, near the end of Dwight Eisenhower’s presidency. The Soviet Union’s launch of the Sputnik

Earth: The geomagnetic field and magnetosphere: …occurs through a process called reconnection, in which the Sun’s magnetic field, dragged into interplanetary space by the solar wind, becomes linked with the magnetic field in Earth’s magnetosphere. The energy is released in dynamic structural reconfigurations of the magnetosphere, called geomagnetic substorms, which often result in the precipitation of…

Reconquista, in medieval Spain and Portugal, a series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory from the Muslims (Moors), who had occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century. Though the beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to about 718, when the

Reconquista, in medieval Spain and Portugal, a series of campaigns by Christian states to recapture territory from the Muslims (Moors), who had occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century. Though the beginning of the Reconquista is traditionally dated to about 718, when the

St. Augustine: Reconsiderations: Retractationes (426–427; Reconsiderations), written in the last years of his life, offers a retrospective rereading of Augustine’s career. In form, the book is a catalog of his writings with comments on the circumstances of their composition and with the retractions or rectifications he would…

Reconstruction, in U.S. history, the period (1865–77) that followed the American Civil War and during which attempts were made to redress the inequities of slavery and its political, social, and economic legacy and to solve the problems arising from the readmission to the Union of the 11 states

Reconstruction was a transformative era in U.S. history, as the government sought to rebuild the country following the Civil War and redress the enduring political, social, and economic inequities of slavery. In 1865–66 Congress took significant steps to support and protect formerly enslaved

Reconstruction Acts, U.S. legislation enacted in 1867–68 that outlined the conditions under which the Southern states would be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil War (1861–65). The bills were largely written by the Radical Republicans in the U.S. Congress. After the war ended in

Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011: Relief and rebuilding efforts: …the government established a cabinet-level Reconstruction Agency to coordinate rebuilding efforts in the Tōhoku area. The agency was scheduled to be in operation for 10 years, the length of time it was projected to completely restore the region. In early 2015 the agency reported that nearly all the disaster debris…

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), U.S. government agency established by Congress on January 22, 1932, to provide financial aid to railroads, financial institutions, and business corporations. With the passage of the Emergency Relief Act in July 1932, its scope was broadened to include aid

Muhammad Iqbal: Philosophical position and influence of Muhammad Iqbal: …philosophical position was articulated in The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1934), a volume based on six lectures delivered at Madras (now Chennai), Hyderabad, and Aligarh in 1928–29. He argued that a rightly focused man should unceasingly generate vitality through interaction with the purposes of the living God. The…

Third Reich: The Enabling Act and the Nazi revolution: …of decrees culminating in the Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich (January 30, 1934) abolished the Land (state) diets and transferred the sovereign powers of the Länder to the Reich. In May 1933 the trade unions organization was suppressed and the unions merged into a German labor front under…

positivism: Developments in linguistic analysis and their offshoots: …of Carnap, usually designated as logical reconstruction, which builds up an artificial language. In the procedures of ordinary-language analysis, an attempt is made to trace the ways in which people commonly express themselves. In this manner, many of the traditional vexatious philosophical puzzles and perplexities are shown to arise out…

Reconstructionism, in American Judaism, movement and ideology founded in 1922 that holds that Judaism is in essence a religious civilization the religious elements of which are purely human, naturalistic expressions of a specific culture. Because Reconstructionism rejects the notion of a

Mordecai Menahem Kaplan: In 1935 the Reconstructionist, a biweekly periodical under Kaplan’s editorship, appeared and adopted the following credo: “Dedicated to the advancement of Judaism as a religious civilization, to the upbuilding of Eretz Yisrael [the Land of Israel] as the spiritual center of the Jewish People, and to the furtherance…

dentistry: Reconstructive dentistry: Reconstructive dentistry involves any major rebuilding of the mouth, typically with porcelain and metal. Reconstructive dentistry may be needed by individuals who have many severe cavities, have generalized severe gum disease, or have been in an accident. Reconstructive dentistry frequently involves a combination…

therapeutics: Reconstructive surgery: Reconstructive surgery is employed when a significant amount of tissue is missing as a result of trauma or surgical removal. A skin graft may be required if the wound cannot be closed directly. If a large surface area is involved, a thin split-thickness…

Laws of the Indies: …royal authorization, culminating in the Recopilación de las leyes de los reinos de Indias (1680). From the beginning of the colonization of the Americas, Castilian law constituted the basic private law in the colonies, but, because special conditions prevailed there, the Spanish crown legislated specifically for the Indies (America), in…

calligraphy: Writing manuals and copybooks (16th to 18th century): …to publish a copybook, the Recopilacion subtilissima (1548; “Most Delicate Compilation”). Two years later he published his Arte subtilissima (1550; “The Most Delicate Art”), in which he acknowledged his debt to the printed books of Arrighi, Tagliente, and Palatino. Like them he showed a variety of formal and informal hands…