intension and extension: extension, in logic, correlative words that indicate the reference of a term or concept: “intension” indicates the internal content of a term or concept that constitutes its formal definition; and “extension” indicates its range of applicability by naming the particular objects that it denotes. For…

Encyclopædia Britannica: First edition: …those in search of quick reference material, who could instantly turn to what they wanted in its alphabetical order.

laser: Interferometry and holography: …combined with the other half—the reference beam—in the plane of a photographic plate, producing a random-looking pattern of light and dark zones that record the wave front of light from the object. Later, when laser light illuminates that pattern from the same angle as the reference beam, it is scattered…

chemical analysis: Potentiometry: …while the potential of the reference electrode is constant. Potentiometry is probably the most frequently used electroanalytical method. It can be divided into two categories on the basis of the nature of the indicator electrode. If the electrode is a metal or other conductive material that is chemically and physically…

ellipsoid: …ellipsoid of revolution (called the reference ellipsoid) is used to represent the Earth in geodetic calculations, because such calculations are simpler than those with more complicated mathematical models. For this ellipsoid, the difference between the equatorial radius and the polar radius (the semimajor and semiminor axes, respectively) is about 21…

reference frame, in dynamics, system of graduated lines symbolically attached to a body that serve to describe the position of points relative to the body. The position of a point on the surface of the Earth, for example, can be described by degrees of latitude, measured north and south from the

marketing: Social factors: Social factors include reference groups—that is, the formal or informal social groups against which consumers compare themselves. Consumers may be influenced not only by their own membership groups but also by reference groups of which they wish to be a part. Thus, a consumer who wishes to be…

library: Reference and retrieval: In reference service, librarians have traditionally given personal help to readers in making the best use of collections to satisfy their information needs. The publication of printed catalogs and bibliographies, the accessibility of on-line catalogs and multimedia databases, and the organizing of interlibrary cooperation have widened…

reference frame, in dynamics, system of graduated lines symbolically attached to a body that serve to describe the position of points relative to the body. The position of a point on the surface of the Earth, for example, can be described by degrees of latitude, measured north and south from the

reference frame: …known as a Newtonian, or inertial reference, frame. The laws are also valid in any set of rigid axes moving with constant velocity and without rotation relative to the inertial frame; this concept is known as the principle of Newtonian or Galilean relativity. A coordinate system attached to the Earth…

map: Development of reference spheroids: An International Ellipsoid of Reference was adopted by the Geodetic and Geophysical Union in 1924 for application throughout the world.

sculpture: Principles of design: Planes of reference are imaginary planes to which the movements, positions, and directions of volumes, axes, and surfaces may be referred. The principal planes of reference are the frontal, the horizontal, and the two profile planes.

analytic philosophy: The theory of reference: The debate concerning the theory of reference was about which of two competing accounts, one based on the views of Frege and one based on the early views of Russell, is best able to explain how people, using language, are able to…

Italy: Lombard Italy: …permanent administrators (such as the referendarii, who organized the writing of royal charters) and legal experts; there is evidence of legal appeals to judges in Pavia, and some of them were settled by the king himself.

Italy: Lombard Italy: …permanent administrators (such as the referendarii, who organized the writing of royal charters) and legal experts; there is evidence of legal appeals to judges in Pavia, and some of them were settled by the king himself.

referendum and initiative, electoral devices by which voters may express their wishes with regard to government policy or proposed legislation. They exist in a variety of forms. The referendum may be obligatory or optional. Under the obligatory type, a statute or constitution requires that certain

rapporteur: In Germany the Referent in the Reichskammergericht, the supreme court of the Holy Roman Empire, had similar responsibilities. He analyzed evidence and legal issues and made his recommendations to the whole court. In important cases two Referents were appointed. The reports and discussions were kept secret, and the…

computer science: Information management: …type of integrity, known as referential integrity, requires that each entity referenced by some other entity must itself exist in the database. For example, if an airline reservation is requested for a particular flight number, then the flight referenced by that number must actually exist.

music: Referentialists and nonreferentialists: …persistent disagreement is between the referentialists (or heteronomists), who hold that music can and does refer to meanings outside itself, and the nonreferentialists (who are sometimes called formalists or absolutists), who maintain that the art is autonomous and “means itself.” The Austrian critic Eduard Hanslick, in his The Beautiful in…

nervous system disease: Referred headaches: Pain may also be referred to the head (i.e., felt in the head even though the site of disease is elsewhere) by eye disorders such as glaucoma, infections or tumours of the nasal sinuses, dental infections, and arthritis of the neck.

human nervous system: Referred pain: The term referred pain is used to describe pain felt in a region where it does not originate but to which it is referred. It is usually used to describe pain arising in hollow viscera and felt in somatic tissues, such as the…

petroleum refining: Processing configurations: Each petroleum refinery is uniquely configured to process a specific raw material into a desired slate of products. In order to determine which configuration is most economical, engineers and planners survey the local market for petroleum products and assess the available raw materials. Since about half…

petroleum refining: Processing configurations: Each petroleum refinery is uniquely configured to process a specific raw material into a desired slate of products. In order to determine which configuration is most economical, engineers and planners survey the local market for petroleum products and assess the available raw materials. Since about half…

metallurgy: Extractive metallurgy: Extraction is often followed by refining, in which the level of impurities is brought lower or controlled by pyrometallurgical, electrolytic, or chemical means. Pyrometallurgical refining usually consists of the oxidizing of impurities in a high-temperature liquid bath. Electrolysis is the dissolving of metal from one electrode of an electrolytic cell…

coal: Reflectivity: …coal is its reflectivity (or reflectance)—i.e., its ability to reflect light. Reflectivity is measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with a wavelength of 546 nanometres) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected with a photometer.…

melanoma: Diagnosis and treatment: An approach known as reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM), sometimes described as “optical biopsy,” may be used to diagnose melanoma. RCM allows doctors to examine suspicious moles and skin abnormalities without cutting into the skin. Another diagnostic approach that does not entail cutting into the skin is adhesive patch testing,…

telecommunications media: Reflected propagation: Sometimes part of the transmitted wave travels to the receiver by reflection off a smooth boundary whose edge irregularities are only a fraction of the transmitted wavelength. When the reflecting boundary is a perfect conductor, total reflection without loss can occur. However, when…

telecommunications media: Reflected propagation: Sometimes part of the transmitted wave travels to the receiver by reflection off a smooth boundary whose edge irregularities are only a fraction of the transmitted wavelength. When the reflecting boundary is a perfect conductor, total reflection without loss can occur. However, when…

World Trade Center: Called “Reflecting Absence,” it consisted of two pools (one in each tower’s footprint void) surrounded by trees and by walls containing the names of the victims. The memorial opened to the public on September 12, 2011.

probability theory: Queuing models: …called a random walk with reflecting barrier at 0, because it behaves like a random walk whenever it is positive and is pushed up to be equal to 0 whenever it tries to become negative. Quantities of interest are the mean and variance of the waiting time of the nth…

goniometer: Reflecting goniometers: The reflecting goniometer is an instrument of far greater precision and is used for the accurate measurement of the angles when small crystals with smooth faces are available. Such faces reflect sharply defined images of a bright object. By turning the crystal about…

microscope: Reflecting microscopes: Microscopes of this type feature reflecting rather than refracting objectives. They are used to carry out microscopy over a wide range of visible light and especially in the ultraviolet or infrared regions, where conventional optical glasses do not transmit. The reflecting microscope objective…

telescope: Reflecting telescopes: Reflectors are used not only to examine the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum but also to explore both the shorter- and longer-wavelength regions adjacent to it (i.e., the ultraviolet and the infrared). The name of this type of instrument is derived from…

symmetry: reflection, and inversion. The elements of symmetry present in a particular crystalline solid determine its shape and affect its physical properties.

reflection, abrupt change in the direction of propagation of a wave that strikes the boundary between different mediums. At least part of the oncoming wave disturbance remains in the same medium. Regular reflection, which follows a simple law, occurs at plane boundaries. The angle between the

epistemology: Kinds of perception: …of sensation and those of reflection. Regarding the former, Hume said little more than that sensation “arises in the soul originally from unknown causes.” Impressions of reflection arise from a complicated series of mental operations. First, one experiences impressions of heat or cold, thirst or hunger, pleasure or pain; second,…

albedo, fraction of light that is reflected by a body or surface. It is commonly used in astronomy to describe the reflective properties of planets, satellites, and asteroids. It is an important consideration in climatology since recent albedo decreases in the Arctic have increased heat absorption

coal: Reflectivity: …coal is its reflectivity (or reflectance)—i.e., its ability to reflect light. Reflectivity is measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with a wavelength of 546 nanometres) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected with a photometer.…

diffraction grating: …to be a transmission or reflection grating according to whether it is transparent or mirrored—that is, whether it is ruled on glass or on a thin metal film deposited on a glass blank. Reflection gratings are further classified as plane or concave, the latter being a spherical surface ruled with…

reflection nebula, interstellar cloud that would normally be a dark nebula (or molecular cloud) but whose dust reflects the light from a nearby bright star that is not hot enough to ionize the cloud’s hydrogen. The famous nebulosity in the Pleiades star cluster is of this type; it was discovered in

infinity: Metaphysical infinities: …to what logicians call the reflection principle. According to the reflection principle, if P is any simply describable property enjoyed by the Absolute, then there must be something smaller than the Absolute that also has property P. The motivation for the reflection principle is that, if it were to fail…

reflection seismology, analysis of vibrations caused by man-made explosions to determine Earth structures, generally on a large scale. See seismic

angle of incidence: …angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The reflected ray is always in the plane defined by the incident ray and the normal to the surface. The law of reflection can be used to understand the images produced by plane and curved mirrors. Reflection at rough, or irregular, boundaries…

spectroscopy: X-ray optics: …the radiation can be “Bragg reflected” from the crystal: each crystal plane acts as a weakly reflecting surface, but if the angle of incidence θ and crystal spacing d satisfy the Bragg condition, 2d sin θ = nλ, where λ is the wavelength of the X-ray and n is…

angle of incidence: The law of reflection states that, on reflection from a smooth surface, the angle of the reflected ray is equal to the angle of the incident ray. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The reflected ray is always in the plane defined by…

John Dennis: ” Dennis replied with Reflections Critical and Satyrical (1711), which mixed criticism of Pope’s poem with a vicious personal attack upon Pope as “a hunch-back’d toad” whose deformed body mirrored a deformed mind. Despite a temporary reconciliation, the quarrel continued sporadically until Dennis’ death. Dennis figures a good deal…

Reflections in a Golden Eye, novel by Carson McCullers, serialized in Harper’s Bazaar in 1940 and published in one volume in 1941. The novel is set in the 1930s on an army base in the southern United States and concerns the relationships among forlorn, self-destructive people whose lives end in

John Huston: Films of the 1960s of John Huston: …of Carson McCullers’s 1941 novella Reflections in a Golden Eye was a commercial failure but has come to be more widely appreciated with the passage of time. Marlon Brando gave one of his uniquely odd performances as a repressed homosexual army officer whose Southern belle wife (Elizabeth Taylor) becomes involved…

Mathematician and almanac-maker Benjamin Banneker was one of the most accomplished Black men in the early life of the United States. Largely self-educated, he was born to free Black parents and grew up on his family’s tobacco farm, where he became adept in the study of mathematics, engineering, and

Thomas Mann: World War I and political crisis: …published a large political treatise, Reflections of an Unpolitical Man, in which all his ingenuity of mind was summoned to justify the authoritarian state as against democracy, creative irrationalism as against “flat” rationalism, and inward culture as against moralistic civilization. This work belongs to the tradition of “revolutionary conservatism” that…

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: The Hanoverian period of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: …Cognitione, Veritate et Ideis (Reflections on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas) appeared at this time and defined his theory of knowledge: things are not seen in God—as Nicolas Malebranche suggested—but rather there is an analogy, a strict relation, between God’s ideas and those of humans, an identity between God’s logic…

aesthetics: The aesthetic experience: …Leibnizian philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in Meditationes Philosophicae de Nonnullis ad Poema Pertinentibus (1735; Reflections on Poetry). Baumgarten borrowed the Greek term for sensory perception (aisthēsis) in order to denote a realm of concrete knowledge (the realm, as he saw it, of poetry), in which a content is communicated in sensory…

Andrey Sakharov: …Sakharov finished his essay “Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom,” which first circulated as typewritten copies (samizdat) before being published in the West in The New York Times and elsewhere beginning in July. Sakharov warned of grave perils threatening the human race, called for nuclear arms reductions,…

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …et de leur décadence (1734; Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans, 1734). He had thought of publishing the two together, thus following an English tradition, for, as Voltaire said, the English delighted in comparing themselves with the Romans.

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …et de leur décadence (1734; Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans, 1734). He had thought of publishing the two together, thus following an English tradition, for, as Voltaire said, the English delighted in comparing themselves with the Romans.

Sadi Carnot: …à développer cette puissance (Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire), published in 1824, Carnot tackled the essence of the process, not concerning himself as others had done with its mechanical details.

Johann Winckelmann: …der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (1755; Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks, 1765), in which he maintained, “The only way for us to become great, or even inimitable if possible, is to imitate the Greeks.” His essay became a manifesto of the Greek ideal in education and art…

Edmund Burke: Political life: …was provoked into writing his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) by a sermon of the Protestant dissenter Richard Price welcoming the Revolution. Burke’s deeply felt antagonism to the new movement propelled him to the plane of general political thought; it provoked a host of English replies, of which…

Harold Joseph Laski: In Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (1943) and Faith, Reason, and Civilization: An Essay in Historical Analysis (1944), he called for broad economic reforms.

Montesquieu: Major works of Montesquieu: …monarchie universelle en Europe (Reflections on Universal Monarchy in Europe), printed in 1734 but at once withdrawn, he was occupied with an essay on the English constitution (not published until 1748, when it became part of his major work) and with his Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur…

socialism: Syndicalism: …Réflexions sur la violence (1908; Reflections on Violence), in which he treated the general strike not as the inevitable result of social developments but as a “myth” that could lead to the overthrow of capitalism if only enough people could be inspired to act on it.

John Norris: …first major philosophical work was Reflections upon a Late Essay Concerning the Human Understanding (1690), in which he anticipated many later criticisms of John Locke’s theory contained in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; he did, however, agree with Locke in dismissing the doctrine of innate ideas (which asserts that humans…

Ancients and Moderns: …to Temple’s charges in his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1694). He praised the Moderns in most but not all branches of learning, conceding the superiority of the Ancients in poetry, art, and oratory. The primary points of contention were then quickly clouded and confused, but eventually two main…

ethics: Kantian constructivism: a middle ground?: …the metaethical implications of the method of reflective equilibrium in a later work, Political Liberalism (1993), describing it there as “Kantian constructivism.” According to Rawls, whereas intuitionism seeks rational insight into true ethical principles, constructivism searches for “reasonable grounds of reaching agreement rooted in our conception of ourselves and in…

coal: Reflectivity: …coal is its reflectivity (or reflectance)—i.e., its ability to reflect light. Reflectivity is measured by shining a beam of monochromatic light (with a wavelength of 546 nanometres) on a polished surface of the vitrinite macerals in a coal sample and measuring the percentage of the light reflected with a photometer.…

telescope: Reflecting telescopes: Reflectors are used not only to examine the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum but also to explore both the shorter- and longer-wavelength regions adjacent to it (i.e., the ultraviolet and the infrared). The name of this type of instrument is derived from…

mirror, any polished surface that diverts a ray of light according to the law of reflection. The typical mirror is a sheet of glass that is coated on its back with aluminum or silver that produces images by reflection. The mirrors used in Greco-Roman antiquity and throughout the European Middle

nuclear reactor: Reflectors: A reflector is a region of unfueled material surrounding the core. Its function is to scatter neutrons that leak from the core, thereby returning some of them back into the core. This design feature allows for a smaller core size. In addition, reflectors “smooth…

Arcade Fire: …Fire released the double album Reflektor in 2013. Influenced by Haitian and Jamaican dance music as well as by the film Black Orpheus (1959), Reflektor was coproduced by LCD Soundsystem leader James Murphy. Everything Now (2017) mined themes of media consumerism and existential anxiety. Though it was less well received…

Dick Francis: Beginning with Reflex (1980), the story of a mediocre jockey facing the end of his career, Francis began to examine his protagonists’ inner torments. Critics welcomed this new subtlety. Later novels included Comeback (1991), Decider (1993), Come to Grief (1995), To the Hilt (1996), 10 Lb. Penalty

reflex, in biology, an action consisting of comparatively simple segments of behaviour that usually occur as direct and immediate responses to particular stimuli uniquely correlated with them. Many reflexes of placental mammals appear to be innate. They are hereditary and are a common feature of

reflex arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular stimulus. The primary components of the reflex arc are the sensory neurons (or receptors) that receive stimulation and in turn connect to other nerve cells that activate muscle cells (or

functionalism: …of his keystone article, “The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology” (1896), which attacked the philosophy of atomism and the concept of elementarism, including the behavioral theory of stimulus and response. The work of John Dewey and his associates stimulated the progressive-school movement, which attempted to apply functionalist principles to…

motion-picture camera: Most cameras now use the reflex system for viewing and focusing; in this system a mirror diverts to the viewfinder some of the light rays coming through the lens. Zoom lenses are commonly used on many cameras, as are ordinary wide-angle and telephoto lenses. The shutter is located behind the…

reflex arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular stimulus. The primary components of the reflex arc are the sensory neurons (or receptors) that receive stimulation and in turn connect to other nerve cells that activate muscle cells (or

Karel Appel: …and helped found the “Reflex” group, which became known as COBRA (for Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam), in 1948. He moved to Paris in 1950 and by the 1960s had settled in New York City; he later lived in Italy and Switzerland. Partly in reaction against what they perceived as…

human eye: Inhibition: In the central nervous system generally, the relay of impulses from one nerve cell, or neuron, to excite another is only one aspect of neuronal interaction. Just as important, if not more so, is the inhibition of one neuron by the discharge in another.…

human behaviour: The newborn infant: …weeks constitute what is called reflex smiling and usually occur without reference to any external source or stimulus, including other people. By two months, however, infants smile most readily in response to the sound of human voices, and by the third or fourth month they smile easily at the sight…

joint disease: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy—also called shoulder-hand syndrome because pain in the shoulder is associated with pain, swelling, and stiffness of the hand—only rarely develops in the wake of external injury. Most often it follows a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or is associated with…

stereotyped response: Reflex-like activities: Reflex-like activities of entire organisms may be unoriented or oriented. Unoriented responses include kineses—undirected speeding or slowing of the rate of locomotion or frequency of change from rest to movement (orthokinesis) or of frequency or amount of turning of the whole animal (klinokinesis),…

François VI, duc de La Rochefoucauld: The Maximes: …shorter pieces now known as Réflexions diverses. These, with the treaties and conventions that he may have drawn up personally, constitute his entire work, and of these only the Maximes stand out as a work of genius. Like his younger contemporary, Jean de La Bruyère, La Rochefoucauld was a man…

Unigenitus: …Quesnel contained in the book Réflexions morales, was issued at the request of the French king, Louis XIV, who wished to suppress the Jansenist faction. Louis was able to secure initial acceptance of the bull, but some French bishops (led by Louis-Antoine de Noailles, cardinal-archbishop of Paris) rejected it, and…

epigram: The Maximes (1665) of François VI, Duke de La Rochefoucauld marked one of the high points of the epigram in French, influencing such later practitioners as Voltaire. In England, John Dryden, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift produced some of the most memorable epigrams of their time.

Sadi Carnot: …à développer cette puissance (Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire), published in 1824, Carnot tackled the essence of the process, not concerning himself as others had done with its mechanical details.

Joseph-Louis Lagrange, comte de l’Empire: In his long paper “Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations” (1770; “Reflections on the Algebraic Resolution of Equations”), he inaugurated a new period in algebra and inspired Évariste Galois to his group theory.

socialism: Syndicalism: …Réflexions sur la violence (1908; Reflections on Violence), in which he treated the general strike not as the inevitable result of social developments but as a “myth” that could lead to the overthrow of capitalism if only enough people could be inspired to act on it.

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

pronoun: Reflexive and emphatic pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are used when the verb in a sentence acts on the subject.

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

formal logic: Classification of dyadic relations: …itself is said to be reflexive; i.e., ϕ is reflexive if (∀x)ϕxx (example: “is identical with”). If ϕ never holds between any object and itself—i.e., if ∼(∃x)ϕxx —then ϕ is said to be irreflexive (example: “is greater than”). If ϕ is neither reflexive nor irreflexive—i.e., if (∃x)ϕxx ·

theatre: Other developments in the study of movement: The further elaborated discipline of reflexology, which seeks to analyze mind–body interaction, was developed by a variety of philosophers and psychologists and was very influential in the early years of the Soviet Union (see below Developments in Russia and the Soviet Union).

sedimentary rock: Dolomites and dolomitization: …entire process is named evaporative reflux. Penecontemporaneous dolomites would result from the positioning of sabkhas and arid supratidal flats in a site that is in immediate contact with carbonate sediment; diagenetic dolomites would logically result when such dolomite-producing settings overlie older limestone deposits. The presence of fissures or highly permeable…

petroleum refining: Fractional distillation: …of the condensed liquid, called reflux, is pumped back into the top of the column and descends from tray to tray, contacting rising vapours as they pass through the slots in the trays. The liquid progressively absorbs heavier constituents from the vapour and, in turn, gives up lighter constituents to…

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), relatively common digestive disorder characterized by frequent passage of gastric contents from the stomach back into the esophagus. The most common symptom of GERD is heartburn, a burning sensation in the chest and upper abdomen. Other symptoms may include

reforestation, the conversion of previously forested land back to forest. Reforestation is an essential part of the ecological restoration of wild forests and is also used for more heavily managed lands, such as those used for paper production or timber. While a reforested area may not be as

Ottoman Empire: Reform efforts: The Ottoman reforms introduced during the 17th century were undertaken by Sultans Osman II (ruled 1618–22) and Murad IV (1623–40) and by the famous dynasty of Köprülü grand viziers who served under Mehmed IV (1648–87)—Köprülü Mehmed Paşa

Reform Bill, any of the British parliamentary bills that became acts in 1832, 1867, and 1884–85 and that expanded the electorate for the House of Commons and rationalized the representation of that body. The first Reform Bill primarily served to transfer voting privileges from the small boroughs

Inukai Tsuyoshi: …organized another new party, the Reform Club (Kakushin Kurabu), and the following year he again joined the cabinet, this time as minister of communications. In 1924, however, he destroyed this coalition government when he left it to join the Friends of Constitutional Government (Rikken Seiyūkai), the largest party in Japan;…

Reform Judaism, a religious movement that has modified or abandoned many traditional Jewish beliefs, laws, and practices in an effort to adapt Judaism to the changed social, political, and cultural conditions of the modern world. Reform Judaism sets itself at variance with Orthodox Judaism by

Union for Reform Judaism, oldest American federation of Jewish congregations, which, since its founding (1873) in Cincinnati, Ohio, has sponsored many programs to strengthen Jewish congregations and promote Jewish education on every level. Its headquarters are in New York City. The union was