Reform Party, political movement in Canada West (later called Upper Canada from 1841 to 1867; now Ontario) and the Maritime Provinces that came into prominence shortly before 1837. Radical Reformers in Canada East (Lower Canada, 1841–67; now Quebec) were known as Patriotes. The Reformers urged that

social movement: Types of social movements: …a distinction implies that a reform movement advocates a change that will preserve the existing values but will provide improved means of implementing them. The revolutionary movement, on the other hand, is regarded as advocating replacement of existing values. Almost invariably, however, the members of a so-called revolutionary movement insist…

Hundred Days of Reform, (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. It occurred after the Chinese defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing rush for concessions in China on the part of Western imperialist powers. Following the

Rosa Luxemburg: …in Sozialreform oder Revolution? (1899; Reform or Revolution), in which she defended Marxist orthodoxy and the necessity of revolution, arguing that parliament was nothing more than a bourgeois sham. Karl Kautsky, the leading theoretician of the Second International, agreed with her, and revisionism consequently became a socialist heresy both in…

Ross Perot: …September 1995 Perot established the Reform Party, which he hoped to build into a major political party. The party’s broadly defined platform called for campaign reform, congressional term limits, balancing the federal budget, overhauling the health care and income tax systems, and placing restrictions on lobbying. Running as the Reform…

Reform Party, political movement in Canada West (later called Upper Canada from 1841 to 1867; now Ontario) and the Maritime Provinces that came into prominence shortly before 1837. Radical Reformers in Canada East (Lower Canada, 1841–67; now Quebec) were known as Patriotes. The Reformers urged that

Canada: The administration of Brian Mulroney, 1984–93: The western-based Reform Party, a conservative populist party formed in 1987, obtained 52 seats, and the Quebec separatist Bloc Québécois, which had informal ties with the Parti Québécois, became the official opposition, with 54 seats.

New Zealand Political Reform League, conservative political party formed from various local and sectional organizations that took power in 1912, following a general election in 1911, and held control of the government until 1928. The Reform Party first acted as a united group in 1905, but it was

reformatory, correctional institution for the treatment, training, and social rehabilitation of young offenders. In England in the mid-19th century, the House of Refuge movement prompted the establishment of the first reformatories, which were conceived as an alternative to the traditional practice

Fukko Shintō, school of Japanese religion prominent in the 18th century that attempted to uncover the pure meaning of ancient Shintō thought through philological study of the Japanese classics. The school had a lasting influence on the development of modern Shintō thought. Kada Azumamaro

Lisbon Treaty, international agreement that amended the Maastricht Treaty, Treaties of Rome, and other documents to simplify and streamline the institutions that govern the European Union (EU). Proposed in 2007, the Lisbon Treaty was ratified by most member states in 2008, but a referendum in

Nigel Farage: In 2019 he launched the Brexit Party, which he rebranded as Reform UK in 2021. In 2024 Farage won a seat in the British Parliament, representing Clacton.

Germany: The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck: …Nationalverein (National Union) and the Reformverein (Reform Union) initiated agitation for a new federal union, the former advocating Prussian and the latter Austrian leadership. Liberal writers and politicians began to advance plans for the reform of the German Confederation. Some of the states, detecting a shift in public opinion, decided…

La Reforma: …civil war (known as the War of the Reform or Reform War), which was won by the liberal government by 1860. By the Laws of La Reforma (1859), church property, except for places of worship, was to be confiscated without compensation, monasteries were suppressed, cemeteries nationalized, and civil marriage instituted.…

Hundred Days of Reform, (1898), in Chinese history, imperial attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. It occurred after the Chinese defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing rush for concessions in China on the part of Western imperialist powers. Following the

La Reforma, liberal political and social revolution in Mexico between 1854 and 1876 under the principal leadership of Benito Juárez. La Reforma period began with the issuance in 1854 of the Plan de Ayutla, a liberal pronouncement calling for the removal of the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna.

La Reforma: …civil war (known as the War of the Reform or Reform War), which was won by the liberal government by 1860. By the Laws of La Reforma (1859), church property, except for places of worship, was to be confiscated without compensation, monasteries were suppressed, cemeteries nationalized, and civil marriage instituted.…

La Reforma, liberal political and social revolution in Mexico between 1854 and 1876 under the principal leadership of Benito Juárez. La Reforma period began with the issuance in 1854 of the Plan de Ayutla, a liberal pronouncement calling for the removal of the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna.

Latin American architecture: Architecture of the new independent republics, c. 1810–70: The Paseo de la Reforma in Mexico City is said to be the first example of a Parisian boulevard in the New World. By the 1880s this form of urban renewal had been realized in Palermo Park and the Avenida de Mayo in Buenos Aires, the…

François Lambert: Encouraged by Philip, Lambert drafted Reformatio ecclesiarum Hassiae (“The Reformation of the Churches of Hesse”), which was submitted by Philip to the synod at Homberg (1526). Lambert’s document called for democratic principles of congregational representation in church government, by which pastors were to be elected by their congregations. He believed…

Reformation, the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century. Its greatest leaders undoubtedly were Martin Luther and John Calvin. Having far-reaching political, economic, and social effects, the Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism, one

Kaspar Schwenckfeld von Ossig: …representative of a phenomenon called Reformation by the Middle Way, and he established societies that survive in the United States as the Schwenckfelder Church.

Reformation Day, anniversary of the day Martin Luther is said to have posted his Ninety-five Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany (October 31, 1517), later identified by Protestants as the beginning of the Reformation. (See Researcher’s Note: The posting of the theses.)

United Kingdom: The break with Rome: The so-called Reformation Parliament that first met in November 1529 was unprecedented; it lasted seven years, enacted 137 statutes (32 of which were of vital importance), and legislated in areas that no medieval Parliament had ever dreamed of entering. “King in Parliament” became the revolutionary instrument by…

reformatory, correctional institution for the treatment, training, and social rehabilitation of young offenders. In England in the mid-19th century, the House of Refuge movement prompted the establishment of the first reformatories, which were conceived as an alternative to the traditional practice

library: Reformatting: In response to this problem, libraries have developed several preservation strategies. The most important method of preserving library materials has been reformatting. Brittle and crumbling books and photographs are preserved by photographing them on microfilm or, in some cases, by using scanners to create…

Debrecen: …the impressive Református Nagytemplom (Great Reformed Church). This parklike square is dominated by Kossuth’s statue. To the north of the church is Reformed College, a bastion of Calvinist scholarship since the late 16th century. Founded in the 16th century and known as Lajos Kossuth University for most of the…

Gregorian Reform: …popularity to the three-volume work La Réforme Grégorienne (1924–37) by Augustin Fliche, which placed the activities of Gregory VII in the context of church reform and emphasized the inappropriateness of the commonly used term investiture controversy as a description of the spiritual and intellectual reform movement of the second half…

Ernest Renan: Interest in politics: Thus, La Réforme intellectuelle et morale (1871), concerning intellectual and moral reform, argues that France, to achieve national regeneration, must follow the example set by Prussia after the Battle of Jena in 1806. By taking his advice, however, France would have become the sort of clerical…

Reformed and Presbyterian churches: Reformed churches in Germany: A Reformed Alliance was organized in Germany in 1884 to preserve the Reformed heritage. A synod held in Altona in January 1934 drew up a confessional statement in opposition to the German Christians’ corruption of the Gospel. This led to the Barmen Synod of May 1934,…

Reformed and Presbyterian churches, name given to various Protestant churches that share a common origin in the Reformation in 16th-century Switzerland. Reformed is the term identifying churches regarded as essentially Calvinistic in doctrine. The term presbyterian designates a collegial type of

Reformed church, any of several major representative groups of classical Protestantism that arose in the 16th-century Reformation. Originally, all of the Reformation churches used this name (or the name Evangelical) to distinguish themselves from the “unreformed,” or unchanged, Roman Catholic

Reformed Church in America, church that developed from the Dutch settlements in New Netherlands (New York) in the 17th century. The Dutch Reformed Church was the first Reformed church of continental European background in North America. During the period of Dutch sovereignty over New Netherlands,

Reformed Church in Hungary, Reformed church that developed in Hungary during and after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. The influence of the Reformation was felt early in Hungary. A synod at Erdod adopted the Lutheran Augsburg Confession in 1545, and by 1567 the Synod of Debrecen adopted

Evangelical and Reformed Church: …in 1934 by uniting the Reformed Church in the United States and the Evangelical Synod of North America. The church brought together churches of Reformed and Lutheran background. It accepted the Heidelberg Catechism (Reformed), Luther’s Catechism, and the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran) as its doctrinal standards, but, when these differed, the…

Reformed Church of France, church organized in 1938 by merging several Reformed churches that had developed in France during and after the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. During the early part of the Reformation, Protestant movements made slow progress in France. Yet reforming movements within

Netherlands Reformed Church, Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition, the successor of the established Dutch Reformed Church that developed during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. In 2004 it merged with two other churches—the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands

Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition organized in the Netherlands in 1892 through a merger of the Christian Reformed Church and a group of Reformed churches that were followers of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), a Dutch theologian and statesman.

Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated), Protestant church in the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition that arose in the Netherlands in 1944 out of a doctrinal controversy within the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Nederlands Gereformeerde Kerken). Followers of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920),

George David Cummins: …the first bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church.

Reformed League, voluntary association of German Reformed churches founded at Marburg in 1884 to aid Reformed churches and to conserve the Reformed heritage in Germany. It was organized by Reformed pastors and elders who met to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the birth of the Reformer Huldrych

Reformed church, any of several major representative groups of classical Protestantism that arose in the 16th-century Reformation. Originally, all of the Reformation churches used this name (or the name Evangelical) to distinguish themselves from the “unreformed,” or unchanged, Roman Catholic

Presbyterian Church in America: …PCA welcomed another denomination, the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod.

Reformed Church in America, church that developed from the Dutch settlements in New Netherlands (New York) in the 17th century. The Dutch Reformed Church was the first Reformed church of continental European background in North America. During the period of Dutch sovereignty over New Netherlands,

Reformed League, voluntary association of German Reformed churches founded at Marburg in 1884 to aid Reformed churches and to conserve the Reformed heritage in Germany. It was organized by Reformed pastors and elders who met to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the birth of the Reformer Huldrych

reforming, in chemistry, processing technique by which the molecular structure of a hydrocarbon is rearranged to alter its properties. The process is frequently applied to low-quality gasoline stocks to improve their combustion characteristics. Thermal reforming alters the properties of low-grade

Turkey: The ascendancy of the right, 1961–71: …new trade union federation, the Confederation of Reformist Workers’ Unions (Devrimci Işçi Sendıkalari Konfederasyonu [DİSK]; founded 1967); a revolutionary youth movement, Dev Genç (1969); a socialist political party, the Workers’ Party of Turkey (WPT; 1961); and an armed guerrilla movement, the Turkish People’s Liberation Army (1970). These and similar groups…

Germany: The 1860s: the triumphs of Bismarck: …Nationalverein (National Union) and the Reformverein (Reform Union) initiated agitation for a new federal union, the former advocating Prussian and the latter Austrian leadership. Liberal writers and politicians began to advance plans for the reform of the German Confederation. Some of the states, detecting a shift in public opinion, decided…

telescope: Refracting telescopes: Commonly known as refractors, telescopes of this kind are typically used to examine the Moon, other objects of the solar system such as Jupiter and Mars, and binary stars. The name refractor is derived from the term refraction

refraction, in physics, the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its change in speed. For example, waves travel faster in deep water than in shallow. If an ocean wave approaches a beach obliquely, the part of the wave farther from the beach will move faster

angle of incidence: …of incidence (θ1) and the angle of refraction (θ2), measured with respect to the normal to the surface, in mathematical terms: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2, where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the first and second media, respectively. The index of refraction for any…

refractive index, measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal) and r is the angle of refraction (angle

Snell’s law, in optics, a relationship between the path taken by a ray of light in crossing the boundary or surface of separation between two contacting substances and the refractive index of each. This law was discovered in 1621 by the Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord Snell (also

refractive index, measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal) and r is the angle of refraction (angle

refractive index, measure of the bending of a ray of light when passing from one medium into another. If i is the angle of incidence of a ray in vacuum (angle between the incoming ray and the perpendicular to the surface of a medium, called the normal) and r is the angle of refraction (angle

chromatography: Liquid chromatographic detectors: The refractive index detector compares the refraction of the pure mobile phase with that of the column effluent.

telecommunications media: Reflected propagation: …to a phenomenon known as refractive loss. When the conductivity of the dielectric is less than that of the atmosphere, total reflection can occur if the angle of incidence (that is, the angle relative to the normal, or a line perpendicular to the surface of the reflecting boundary) is less…

instrumentation: …monitor chemical properties include the refractometer, infrared analyzers, chromatographs, and pH sensors. A refractometer measures the bending of a beam of light as it passes from one material to another; such instruments are used, for instance, to determine the composition of sugar solutions or the concentration of tomato paste in…

chemical analysis: Refractometry: Another category of spectral analysis in which the incident radiation changes direction is refractometry. The refractive index of a substance is defined as the ratio of the velocity of electromagnetic radiation in a vacuum to its velocity in the medium of interest. Because it…

telescope: Refracting telescopes: Commonly known as refractors, telescopes of this kind are typically used to examine the Moon, other objects of the solar system such as Jupiter and Mars, and binary stars. The name refractor is derived from the term refraction

refractory, any material that has an unusually high melting point and that maintains its structural properties at very high temperatures. Composed principally of ceramics, refractories are employed in great quantities in the metallurgical, glassmaking, and ceramics industries, where they are formed

firebrick, refractory material consisting of nonmetallic minerals formed in a variety of shapes for use at high temperatures, particularly in structures for metallurgical operations and glass manufacturing. Principal raw materials for firebrick include fireclays, mainly hydrated aluminum silicates;

carbonaceous chondrite: Second, refractory inclusions, which are the oldest objects known to have formed in the solar system, are most abundant in carbonaceous chondrites, particularly the CV group. Finally, the abundances in the CI and CM chondrites of material that predates the solar system are the highest of…

gold processing: Extraction from refractory ores: Many gold-bearing ores and concentrates are not readily amenable to cyanidation, owing to the presence of substances that consume the cyanide reagent before it can dissolve the gold, preferentially adsorb the gold as it dissolves (a phenomenon called preg-robbing), or completely surround the…

muscle: Twitch and tetanus responses: This absolute refractory period in the frog sartorius at 0 °C lasts about 10 milliseconds after stimulation. Therefore, a second pulse within that time span will not elicit any response. If, however, the pulses are 300 milliseconds apart, the muscle will be relaxing when the second pulse…

cardiovascular disease: Refractory and irreversible shock: The terms refractory shock and irreversible shock are widely used by physicians and other medical workers to refer to types of shock that present particularly difficult problems. The term refractory shock is applied when, in spite of apparently adequate therapy, the shock state continues. Commonly, the treatment…

refrain, phrase, line, or group of lines repeated at intervals throughout a poem, generally at the end of the stanza. Refrains are found in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead and are common in primitive tribal chants. They appear in literature as varied as ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Latin verse,

millennialism: Early Christian millennialism: …as belief in the “Refreshment of the Saints” (a 45-day period of respite during which the saints who had survived the tribulations of the Endtime would enjoy peace on earth). Above all, charismatic prophets used apocalyptic calculations drawn from Revelation and The Book of Daniel to excite the faithful.…

Laetare Sunday, fourth Sunday in Lent in the Western Christian Church, so called from the first word (“Rejoice”) of the introit of the liturgy. It is also known as mid-Lent Sunday, for it occurs just over halfway through Lent, and as Refreshment Sunday because it may be observed with some

air-conditioning: The development of highly efficient refrigerant gases of low toxicity known as Freons (carbon compounds containing fluorine and chlorine or bromine) in the early 1930s was an important step. By the middle of that decade American railways had installed small air-conditioning units on their trains, and by 1950 compact units…

refrigeration, the process of removing heat from an enclosed space or from a substance for the purpose of lowering the temperature. In the industrialized nations and affluent regions in the developing world, refrigeration is chiefly used to store foodstuffs at low temperatures, thus inhibiting the

Gustavus Swift: … and promoter of the railway refrigerator car for shipping meat.

Leo Kanner: …also coined the phrase “refrigerator mother” to describe the supposed emotional frigidity of parents who he thought caused, or at least contributed to, their children’s autistic behaviour.

Tom Petty: …Me Like That” and “Refugee,” shot to number two, and, though the group’s success in the 1980s leveled off, there were several hits, including Petty’s duet with Stevie Nicks, “Stop Draggin’ My Heart Around” (1981), and the Heartbreakers’ “Don’t Come Around Here No More” (1985). The band also gained…

refugee, any uprooted, homeless, involuntary migrant who has crossed a frontier and no longer possesses the protection of his or her former government. Prior to the 19th century the movement from one country to another did not require passports and visas; the right to asylum was commonly recognized

Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic Games: …featured the debut of a Refugee Team made up of 10 athletes from various war-torn countries who had no permanent new home at the start of the Games.

Freedmen’s Bureau, (1865–72), during the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War, popular name for the U.S. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, established by Congress to provide practical aid to 4,000,000 newly freed African Americans in their transition from slavery to

tropical rainforest: Origin: …on islands, there are more refugia—i.e., isolated areas whose climates remained unaltered while those of the surrounding areas changed, enabling archaic life-forms to persist.

Canadian literature: World War II and the postwar period, 1935–60: …revolutionary manifesto Refus global (1948; Total Refusal). Poet and playwright Claude Gauvreau, one of the signatories of the manifesto, transposed the group’s principles to the written word, while poet and engraver Roland Giguère began writing poetry inspired by both Surrealism and Quebec nationalism. On the political front, in 1950 Pierre…

refuse, nonhazardous solid waste that requires collection and transport to a processing or disposal site. Refuse includes garbage and rubbish. Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste or yard waste that is highly putrescible, while rubbish is mostly dry material such as glass, paper, cloth, or

solid-waste management: Constructing the landfill: …a sanitary landfill is the refuse cell. This is a confined portion of the site in which refuse is spread and compacted in thin layers. Several layers may be compacted on top of one another to a maximum depth of about 3 metres (10 feet). The compacted refuse occupies about…

solid-waste management: Solid-waste collection: Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to the task, but…

refuse disposal system, technique for the collection, treatment, and disposal of the solid wastes of a community. The development and operation of these systems is often called solid-waste

recycling, recovery and reprocessing of waste materials for use in new products. The basic phases in recycling are the collection of waste materials, their processing or manufacture into new products, and the purchase of those products, which may then themselves be recycled. Typical materials that

solid-waste management: Energy recovery: …as either mass burn or refuse-derived fuel systems. A mass burn system uses all the refuse, without prior treatment or preparation. A refuse-derived fuel system separates combustible wastes from noncombustibles such as glass and metal before burning. If a turbine is installed at the plant, both steam and electricity can…

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet: Early life and priesthood.: His first book, the Réfutation du catéchisme du sieur Paul Ferry (“Refutation of the Catechism of Paul Ferry”), was the result of his discussions with Paul Ferry, the minister of the Protestant Reformed church at Metz. Bossuet’s reputation as a preacher spread to Paris, where his “Panégyrique de l’apôtre…

patristic literature: The Apologists: …that he wrote the comprehensive Refutation of All Heresies, attacking gnosticism, as well as treatises denouncing specifically Christian heresies. He was also the author both of numerous commentaries on scripture and (probably) of the Apostolic Tradition, an invaluable source of knowledge about the primitive Roman liturgy. His Commentary on Daniel…

Ḥasdai ben Abraham Crescas: …wrote (1397–98) a treatise in “Refutation of the Principles of the Christians,” a critique of 10 principles of Christianity.

Armenian literature: Origins and golden age: …Armenian writing is the “Refutation of the Sects” by Eznik Koghbatsi. This was a polemical work, composed partly from Greek sources, in defense of orthodox Christian belief against—and thereby providing valuable information about—pagan Armenian superstitions, Iranian dualism, Greek philosophy, and the Marcionite heresy. Its pure classical style is unsurpassed…

desert: Environment: Stony plains called regs or gibber plains are widespread, their surface covered by desert pavement consisting of coarse gravel and stones coated with a patina of dark “desert varnish” (a glossy dark surface cover consisting of oxides of iron). Rocky, boulder-strewn plateaus cut by dry, usually steep-sided valleys…

African art: Northern cultural area: The Lega, who inhabit the area between the Luba and the northernmost peoples, have produced figures and masks, mostly carved from ivory in a schematic style. These objects are used, together with a vast assemblage of artifacts and natural objects, in the initiation to successive grades…

regal, a small, easily portable pipe organ usually having only a single set, or rank, of reed pipes. The beating reeds are surmounted by small resonators, producing a nasal, buzzing tone. Wind under pressure to sound the pipes is supplied by one or two bellows attached to the instrument and

regal moth, (subfamily Citheroniinae), any of a group of moths in the family Saturniidae (order Lepidoptera) that are large and brightly coloured and occur only in the New World. The ferocious-looking but harmless hickory horned devil caterpillar (larva of the royal walnut moth, Citheronia regalis)

keyboard instrument: Reed pipes: …the pitch are known as regals; regal stops were popular in the 17th century, particularly with the North German school, and their use has been revived in modern times. Their short resonators have varying and peculiar shapes, which produce a highly characteristic snarling tone; they can be difficult to keep…

starling: The 36-cm golden-breasted, or regal, starling (Lamprotornis regius) of eastern Africa, is green, blue, and yellow, with a long tail. The wattled starling (Creatophora cinerea) is brown, gray, and white; uniquely, the breeding male becomes bald, showing bright yellow skin, and grows large black wattles on the…

keyboard instrument: Reed pipes: …pitch are known as regals; regal stops were popular in the 17th century, particularly with the North German school, and their use has been revived in modern times. Their short resonators have varying and peculiar shapes, which produce a highly characteristic snarling tone; they can be difficult to keep in…

oarfish, (Regalecus glesne), large, long, sinuous fish of the family Regalecidae (order Lampridiformes), found throughout the tropics and subtropics in rather deep water. A ribbon-shaped fish, very thin from side to side, the oarfish may grow to a length of about 9 metres (30.5 feet) and a weight

Spain: Domestic reforms: …were fashionable anticlericals, most were regalists; that is, they asserted the right of the crown to control over the church in civil matters. In the extreme regalists’ view, the state should take care of charity and education, and it should subject priests to civil jurisdiction for civil crimes and assert…

Regan, the king’s deceitful middle daughter in Shakespeare’s tragedy King

Nancy Reagan: First lady: …of former staff members, including Donald Regan, the president’s chief of staff, who publicly blamed her for his firing in 1987. Regan also claimed that Nancy Reagan insisted that the president’s schedule take into account her astrologer’s predictions and warnings. In her memoirs, she admitted having access to her husband—“For…