basketry: Spiral coiling: The most common form is spiral coiling, in which the nature of the standard introduces two main subvariations: when it is solid, made up of a single whole stem, the thread must squeeze the two coils together binding each to the preceding one…

electrochemical reaction: Electrocrystallization: Mechanisms associated with screw dislocations, or twinning edges, can provide for a continuous growth of crystals. The screw dislocation mechanism, shown in Figure 3B, is made possible by a specific fault often found in the crystal lattice that may be called a dislocation originating from a shift of…

fracture: A spiral fracture, characterized by a helical break, commonly results from a twisting injury.

frozen meal: Freezing: …more compact arrangement employs a spiral belt. The spiral arrangement maximizes the belt surface area for a given floor space. A popular type of spiral freezer uses self-stacking belts. In the self-stacking arrangement, each tier rests on the vertical side flanges of the tier beneath. Several configurations of air flow…

galaxy: Spiral galaxies: Spirals are characterized by circular symmetry, a bright nucleus surrounded by a thin outer disk, and a superimposed spiral structure. They are divided into two parallel classes: normal spirals and barred spirals. The normal spirals have arms that emanate from the nucleus, while…

human ear: Transduction of mechanical vibrations: …endings, which lead to the spiral ganglion of Corti in the modiolus of the cochlea. The spiral ganglion sends axons into the cochlear nerve. At the top of the hair cell is a hair bundle containing stereocilia, or sensory hairs, that project upward into the tectorial membrane, which lies above…

human ear: Transduction of mechanical vibrations: …endings, which lead to the spiral ganglion of Corti in the modiolus of the cochlea. The spiral ganglion sends axons into the cochlear nerve. At the top of the hair cell is a hair bundle containing stereocilia, or sensory hairs, that project upward into the tectorial membrane, which lies above…

angiosperm: Secondary vascular system: …spiral pattern, sometimes called the spiral grain of a tree. The angle of the spiral arrangement usually changes from year to year; the path of water up a tree stem may therefore be very complicated if more than one growth layer acts as a conducting tissue. Functionally, the effect of…

environmental sculpture: …extend a rock and dirt spiral, 1,500 feet (460 m) long, into Great Salt Lake in Utah (Spiral Jetty; 1970). The Bulgarian-born artist Christo has involved large numbers of people in the planning and construction of such mammoth alfresco art projects as Valley Curtain (1972; Rifle Gap, Colo.). Christo’s numerous…

human ear: Structure of the cochlea: The spiral ligament extends above the attachment of the Reissner membrane and is in contact with the perilymph in the scala vestibuli. Extending below the insertion of the basilar membrane, it is in contact with the perilymph of the scala tympani. It contains many stout fibres…

galaxy: Spiral galaxies: Spirals are characterized by circular symmetry, a bright nucleus surrounded by a thin outer disk, and a superimposed spiral structure. They are divided into two parallel classes: normal spirals and barred spirals. The normal spirals have arms that emanate from the nucleus, while…

spiral of silence, in the study of human communication and public opinion, the theory that people’s willingness to express their opinions on controversial public issues is affected by their largely unconscious perception of those opinions as being either popular or unpopular. Specifically, the

human ear: Structure of the cochlea: …of the stria is the spiral prominence, a low ridge parallel to the basilar membrane that contains its own set of longitudinally directed capillary vessels. Below the prominence is the outer sulcus. The floor of the outer sulcus is lined by cells of epithelial origin, some of which send long…

mineral processing: Gravity separation: …forces—for example, centrifugal force on spirals or impact forces on shaking tables. Spirals consist of a vertical spiral channel with an oval cross section. As the pulp flows from the top to the bottom of the channel, heavier particles concentrate on the inner side of the stream, where they can…

spring: The spiral spring is made from flat strip or wire coiled up in the manner of the groove on a phonograph record. As a mainspring or hairspring, it provides a compact source of energy in clocks and watches; it is also used on typewriters and parking…

Robert Siodmak: The gothic thriller The Spiral Staircase (1945) starred Dorothy McGuire as a woman hunted by a serial killer. Arguably better was The Killers (1946), which took the original Ernest Hemingway short story as its opening point and developed it in an elaborate series of flashbacks. The film noir…

circulatory system: Fishes: …spiral pattern and called the spiral valve. The ventral aorta is also subdivided internally. The result is that oxygenated blood from the left side of the ventricle is directed into the ventral division of the ventral aorta and passes to the anterior of the arterial arches, while deoxygenated blood from…

human ear: Structure of the cochlea: These vessels, called spiral vessels, do not enter the organ of Corti but are thought to supply most of the oxygen and other nutrients to its cells. Although the outer spiral vessel is seldom found in adult animals of certain species such as the dog, cat, and rat…

André Jolivet: …La Spirale, later to become La Jeune France (the name originated with Hector Berlioz), dedicated to fostering modern nationalistic music. During his service in the French Army during World War II, Jolivet grew interested in primitive religion and magic—influences that may be detected in his style.

fricative, in phonetics, a consonant sound, such as English f or v, produced by bringing the mouth into position to block the passage of the airstream, but not making complete closure, so that air moving through the mouth generates audible friction. Fricatives (also sometimes called “spirants”) can

ladies’ tresses, (genus Spiranthes), genus of about 45 species of terrestrial orchids (family Orchidaceae), found in woods and grasslands throughout most of the world. Ladies’ tresses have a fleshy root system, and most species have narrow basal leaves. Species of Spiranthes vary greatly in size

ladies’ tresses: …bloom in autumn, such as nodding ladies’ tresses, or autumn tresses (S. cernua), in North America and autumn ladies’ tresses (S. spiralis) in Europe. Slender ladies’ tresses (S. lacera) of North America has a single spiral of small white flowers.

ladies’ tresses: Slender ladies’ tresses (S. lacera) of North America has a single spiral of small white flowers.

ladies’ tresses: cernua), in North America and autumn ladies’ tresses (S. spiralis) in Europe. Slender ladies’ tresses (S. lacera) of North America has a single spiral of small white flowers.

spire, in architecture, steeply pointed pyramidal or conical termination to a tower. In its mature Gothic development, the spire was an elongated, slender form that was a spectacular visual culmination of the building as well as a symbol of the heavenly aspirations of pious medieval men. The spire

Charles Stark Draper: …for aircraft, Projects FEBE and SPIRE, were tested in 1949 and 1953. Production systems were installed in aircraft and submarines beginning in 1956 and in the Polaris missile in 1960. The “black boxes” of spinning gyroscopes and integrating circuits developed by Draper and his students were eventually deployed in the…

Dublin: Character of the city: …marked since 2002 by the Spire of Dublin, a 394-foot (120-metre) stainless steel landmark that proclaimed the street’s transformation with a pedestrian plaza and tree-lined boulevard. Together with a rash of new high-rise buildings, the spire has changed the character of the city and of the north side. Though Dublin…

William Golding: …novels, Free Fall (1959) and The Spire (1964), also demonstrate Golding’s belief that “man produces evil as a bee produces honey.” Darkness Visible (1979) tells the story of a boy horribly burned in the London blitz during World War II. His later works include Rites of Passage (1980), which won…

typography: Italy: Wendelin von Speyer (sometimes called da Spira and sometimes of Spire) opened the first press in Venice in 1469 and, until Johann died in 1470, had a one-year monopoly on all printing in that city. They used a clear and legible typeface that represented another…

spirea, (genus Spiraea), genus of nearly 100 species of flowering shrubs in the rose family (Rosaceae). Native to the north temperate zone, many spirea species are commonly cultivated for their pleasing growth habit and attractive flower clusters. Members of the genus Spiraea are hardy deciduous

Rosales: Evolution: …genus Spiraea, of the subfamily Spiraeoideae, is known from fossil fruits and leaves, and the related genus Physocarpus is represented in fossils dating to the middle of the Cenozoic Era. In the subfamily Maloideae, fruit and seed remains have been recognized from the genera Crataegus and Pyrus. Leaf fossils are…

Speyer, city, Rhineland-Palatinate Land (state), southwestern Germany. Speyer is a port on the left bank of the Rhine River at the mouth of the Speyer River, south of Ludwigshafen. An ancient Celtic settlement, about 100 bce it became a Roman military and trading town, Noviomagus, and later became

George Sand: >Spiridion (1839), and Les Sept Cordes de la lyre (1840), show the influence of one or another of the men with whom she associated.

lamp shells: Annotated classification: Order Spiriferida Lophophore supported by a calcareous spiral structure (brachidium); punctate or impunctate, usually biconvex; delthyrium open or closed; more than 300 genera; mid-Ordovician to Jurassic. Order Terebratulida Pedicle functional, cyrtomatodont teeth; lophophore supported wholly or in part by a calcareous loop, short or long and…

bacteria: Diversity of structure of bacteria: or curved (vibrio, spirillum, or spirochete). Considerable variation is seen in the actual shapes of bacteria, and cells can be stretched or compressed in one dimension. Bacteria that do not separate from one another after cell division form characteristic clusters that are helpful in their identification. For example,…

rat-bite fever, relapsing type of infection in which the causative bacteria are transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected rat. The disease occurs primarily in Asia and is caused by the bacterium Spirillum minus. Symptoms of spirillary rat-bite fever include infection at the site of

bacteria: Diversity of structure of bacteria: or curved (vibrio, spirillum, or spirochete). Considerable variation is seen in the actual shapes of bacteria, and cells can be stretched or compressed in one dimension. Bacteria that do not separate from one another after cell division form characteristic clusters that are helpful in their identification. For example,…

Spirillum, genus of spiral-shaped bacteria of the family Spirillaceae, aquatic except for one species (S. minus) that causes a type of rat-bite fever in man. The term spirillum is used generally for any of the corkscrew-like species. Spirillum is microbiologically characterized as a gram-negative,

rat-bite fever: …is caused by the bacterium Spirillum minus.

rat-bite fever: …is caused by the bacterium Spirillum minus.

inheritance: Inheritance and individual ownership of property: …with the belief that the spirits of the slaughtered goats would follow the dead owner into the realm of spirits, where he would need them. Belief in providing for the needs of the dead seems to have been the root of the widespread custom of burying with the body or…

B-2, U.S. long-range stealth bomber that first flew in 1989 and was delivered to the U.S. Air Force starting in 1993. Built and maintained by Northrop Grumman Corporation, the B-2 is a “flying wing,” a configuration consisting essentially of a short but very broad wing with no fuselage and tail.

spiritualism, in philosophy, a characteristic of any system of thought that affirms the existence of immaterial reality imperceptible to the senses. So defined, spiritualism embraces a vast array of highly diversified philosophical views. Most patently, it applies to any philosophy accepting the

distilled spirit, alcoholic beverage (such as brandy, whiskey, rum, or arrack) that is obtained by distillation from wine or other fermented fruit or plant juice or from a starchy material (such as various grains) that has first been brewed. The alcoholic content of distilled liquor is higher than

stagecraft: Role of the scenic designer: The terms mood and spirit can be further defined. Generally, mood refers to the production’s overall emotional quality—happy, sad, tragic, comic, and so forth. Spirit refers to the production concept—the style or manner in which a particular production is to be presented, as decided by the production design team.…

Holy Spirit, in Christian belief, the third person of the Trinity. Numerous outpourings of the Holy Spirit are mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, in which healing, prophecy, the expelling of demons (exorcism), and speaking in tongues (glossolalia) are particularly associated with the activity

Mars: Spacecraft exploration: …which comprised twin robotic landers, Spirit and Opportunity. Spirit touched down in Gusev Crater (15° S 175° E) on January 3, 2004. Three weeks later, on January 24, Opportunity landed in Meridiani Planum (2° S 6° W), on the opposite side of the planet. The six-wheeled rovers, each equipped with…

Zionist church, any of several prophet-healing groups in southern Africa; they correspond to the independent churches known as Aladura (q.v.) in Nigeria, “spiritual” in Ghana, and “prophet-healing churches” in most other parts of Africa. The use of the term Zion derives from the Christian Catholic

Northwest Coast Indian: Religion and the performing arts: …Coast peoples; known as the spirit dances, they were performed during the winter months.

Iowa Great Lakes: Spirit Lake, the largest—4 miles (6 km) long and 3 miles (5 km) wide—lies just north of the town of Spirit Lake, which is the chief community of the region. West Okoboji Lake is noted for the crystalline clarity of its waters.

Spirit Lake Massacre, (March 8–12, 1857), incident in northwestern Iowa, U.S., in which a band of Sioux Indians led by Inkpaduta killed more than 30 white people. In 1856 five cabins had been built and occupied by whites near Okoboji lakes and Spirit Lake. After a severe winter, the Sioux attacked,

surveying: Height determination: In spirit leveling the surveyor has for centuries used a surveying level, which consists of a horizontal telescope fitted with cross hairs, rotating around a vertical axis on a tripod, with a very sensitive spirit level fixed to it; the instrument is adjusted until the bubble…

Seamus Heaney: The Spirit Level (1996) concerns the notion of centredness and balance in both the natural and the spiritual senses. His Opened Ground: Selected Poems, 1966–1996 was published in 1998. In Electric Light (2001) and District and Circle (2006), he returned to the Ireland of his…

Malaysia: Malaysia from independence to c. 2000: Mahathir’s opponents countered by forming Semangat ’46 (Spirit of ’46), which claimed to embody the ideals of the original UMNO (established in 1946) and attempted to unite the disparate opposition groups against the ruling BN coalition headed by UMNO.

Steve Fossett: Northam, Western Australia, in the Spirit of Freedom and drifted eastward. On July 2 he made history as he crossed his starting point, eventually landing in the outback of Queensland.

Grace Aguilar: In The Spirit of Judaism (1842) she attacked contemporary Judaism for its formalism and traditionalism. Her novels, although they evinced strong religious feeling, were free of sectarian bias. Home Influence was the only one published during her lifetime.

The Spirit of Laws, principal work of the French political philosopher Montesquieu (in full Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu) first published in 1748 as De L’Esprit des loix; ou, du rapport que les loix doivent avoir avec la constitution de chaque gouvernement, les

Étienne Gilson: Among these are L’Esprit de la philosophie médiévale (1932; The Spirit of Mediæval Philosophy), his exposition and defense of the idea of a Christian philosophy; The Unity of Philosophical Experience (1937) and Being and Some Philosophers (1949), perhaps the best examples of his use of the history of…

Jay Macpherson: …study of the pastoral romance, The Spirit of Solitude: Conventions and Continuities in Late Romance, was published in 1982. Biblical and Classical Myths: The Mythological Framework of Western Culture (2004), written with Frye, was based on a course the two had taught together and included Four Ages of Man.

Spirit of St. Louis, airplane in which Charles Lindbergh made the first nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean, from Long Island, New York, to Le Bourget, near Paris, May 20–21, 1927. His flight was sponsored by a group of businessmen in St. Louis, Missouri. The plane was a Ryan NYP

Billy Wilder: Films of the 1950s of Billy Wilder: Wilder’s next project, The Spirit of St. Louis (1957), would be the only biographical film that he would ever make. James Stewart played famed aviator Charles Lindbergh, whose 1927 New York-to-Paris solo flight is the centrepiece around which Wilder constructed a first-rate story.

Charles Lindbergh: World War II and postwar life: …books about his life, including The Spirit of St. Louis (1953), which described the flight to Paris and gained him a Pulitzer Prize. He was also the author, with Alexis Carrel, of The Culture of Organs (1938), concerning the operation of the perfusion pump and related research on which he…

Lee Kernaghan: … (2002), The New Bush (2006), Spirit of the Anzacs (2015), and Backroad Nation (2019)—also earned numerous honours and enthusiastic praise from critics, fans, and the music industry. In 2004 Kernaghan was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in recognition of his fund-raising efforts on behalf of farmers and…

Zane Grey: …writing, he published in 1905 The Spirit of the Border—also based on Zane’s notes—which became a best-seller. Grey subsequently wrote more than 80 books, a number of which were published posthumously; more than 50 were in print in the last quarter of the 20th century. The novel Riders of the…

Lee Kernaghan: …where his hit song “Spirit of the Bush” (2007), recorded with fellow country music luminaries Adam Brand and Steve Forde, won the best single, best vocal collaboration, and best video awards. Kernaghan’s memoir, Boy from the Bush, appeared in 2015.

The Spirit of Laws, principal work of the French political philosopher Montesquieu (in full Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu) first published in 1748 as De L’Esprit des loix; ou, du rapport que les loix doivent avoir avec la constitution de chaque gouvernement, les

Louis de Saint-Just: Publication of Esprit de la révolution: In 1791 he finally published Esprit de la révolution et de la constitution de France (The Spirit of the Revolution and the Constitution of France). The exposition was bold, vigorous, and lofty. The brief, forceful, and elliptical formulations characterized the author. According to him, the constitution framed by the Assembly…

Ernst Moritz Arndt: …his Geist der Zeit (Spirit of the Times, 1808), in which he called on his countrymen to shake off the French yoke. To escape the vengeance of Napoleon, he took refuge in Sweden, from where he continued to communicate his patriotic ideals to his countrymen in pamphlets, poems, and…

turpentine: …called oil (or spirit) of turpentine and a nonvolatile portion called rosin. Although the term turpentine originally referred to the whole oleoresinous exudate, it now commonly refers to its volatile turpentine fraction only, which has various uses in industry and the visual arts.

possession, in religious and folk traditions, condition characterized by unusual behaviour and a personality change that is interpreted as evidence that the person is under the direct control of an external supernatural power. Symptoms of spirit possession include violent unusual movements,

hectograph: The spirit method is also referred to as the direct, or fluid, process. The master copy is prepared by typewriter, handwriting, punched card, or computer-printing devices. Master copies can also be prepared by copying machines and microfilm reader-printers. The master sheet is then fastened to a…

magic: European traditions and the modern world: Notably, spirit rappers, mediums who “conversed” with spirits who replied by knocking on a table, were easily exposed as the ones doing the knocking. Modern popular magic has appeared in the realm of entertainment, generally as a plot device in stories and movies, as tricks aimed…

Benedetto Croce: Croce’s philosophy of the spirit: (1) In the first aspect, philosophy of spirit designates the construction of a philosophical system on the remote pattern of the rationalism (i.e., idealism) of classical Romantic philosophy. Its principle is the “circularity” of spirit (mind, or consciousness) within the structure of the system and in historical time. The phases,…

Will Eisner: The Spirit and Joe Dope: The Spirit soon became the weekly insert’s main series and was, at its peak, published in 20 newspapers with a total circulation of five million copies during the period 1940 to 1952.

Holy Ghost Father, a Roman Catholic society of men founded in 1703 at Paris by Claude-François Poullart des Places. Originally intended only for the training of seminarians, the congregation gradually took an active part in missionary work. Suppressed by the French Revolution, it was restored under

Will Ferrell: Later credits: …appeared with Ryan Reynolds in Spirited (2022), a musical comedy inspired by Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol. He then played the head of the toy company Mattel in Greta Gerwig’s Barbie (2023). In 2025 Ferrell starred with Reese Witherspoon in the romantic comedy You’re Cordially

Spirited Away, Japanese animated fantasy film, released in 2001, that is one of the most acclaimed works by master director Miyazaki Hayao. The movie was for a time the highest-grossing film in Japanese history and won numerous awards, including the prestigious Golden Bear at the Berlin

Spiritism, belief system founded by French author and educator Allan Kardec in the middle of the 19th century that is based on the idea that, alongside physical reality, a spirit world exists, which followers believe can be accessed through mediums. Spiritism maintains that spirits exist separately

Spiritism, belief system founded by French author and educator Allan Kardec in the middle of the 19th century that is based on the idea that, alongside physical reality, a spirit world exists, which followers believe can be accessed through mediums. Spiritism maintains that spirits exist separately

Albert Ayler: …works such as Bells and Spirits Rejoice (both 1965) are in the styles of diatonic, pre-jazz music such as 19th-century hymns, folk songs, marches, and bugle calls. His accompanying bassists and drummers proved equally radical by providing momentum and interplay but not pulse.

Spiritual, member of an extreme group within the Franciscans, a mendicant religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209; the Spirituals firmly espoused the austerity and poverty prescribed in the original Rule of St. Francis. Called the Fraticelli, they were opposed, to some extent, by

spiritual, in North American white and black folk music, an English-language folk hymn. White spirituals include both revival and camp-meeting songs and a smaller number of other hymns. They derived variously, notably from the “lining out” of psalms, dating from at least the mid-17th century. Where

Ronald Knox: …struggle and its resolution in A Spiritual Aeneid (1918). The final expression of his position appeared in The Belief of Catholics (1927). Six volumes of Knox’s sermons were published, including Heaven and Charing Cross (1935) and Captive Flames (1940). Knox also wrote inventive and complex detective novels; Still Dead (1934)…

spiritual assembly, in the Bahāʾī faith, any of numerous administrative units that conduct an extensive work of missions, publication, education, and general philanthropy. Spiritual assemblies consist of nine members elected or designated annually on the local, national, and world levels during the

Christianity: Trinitarian mysticism: …the Most Holy Trinity” (Spiritual Canticle, stanza 39.3). Such strong Trinitarian emphasis is rarer, but not absent from Protestant mysticism.

Dukhobor, (Russian: “Spirit Wrestler”), member of a Russian peasant religious sect, prominent in the 18th century, that rejected all external authority, including the Bible, in favour of direct individual revelation. The liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1652 and the opening of Russia to

long: …and the Spiritual Dragon (Shenlong), who controls the rain and winds. In popular belief only the latter two were significant; they were transformed into the Dragon Kings (Longwang), gods who lived in the four oceans, delivered rain, and protected seafarers.

envy: Spiritual envy is resentment toward others’ spiritual goodness or those who have progressed in holiness. Spiritual envy is more evil than material envy and is considered to be a sin against the Holy Spirit.

Jan van Ruysbroeck: …Chierheit der gheesteliker Brulocht (1350; The Spiritual Espousals), considered to be his masterpiece, develops his view of the Trinity and is a guide for the soul in search of God. Though his many writings were produced for his contemporary Augustinians, they spread rapidly through Latin translations and anticipated the 15th-century…

memento mori: Religious and philosophical expressions: Ignatius of Loyola’s The Spiritual Exercises, for example, recommends meditating on death, one’s own and Jesus Christ’s, to help bring one closer to God.

Spiritual, member of an extreme group within the Franciscans, a mendicant religious order founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209; the Spirituals firmly espoused the austerity and poverty prescribed in the original Rule of St. Francis. Called the Fraticelli, they were opposed, to some extent, by

Christianity: Conflict between order and charismatic freedom: As the uncontrollable principle of life in the church, the Holy Spirit considerably upset Christian congregations from the very outset. Paul struggled to restrict the anarchist elements, which are connected with the appearance of free charismata (spiritual phenomena), and, over against these, to…

Christianity: Western Catholic Christianity: …Molinos, author of the popular Spiritual Guide (1675), was condemned for his doctrine of the “One Act,” that is, the teaching that the will, once fixed on God in contemplative prayer, cannot lose its union with the divine. In France Mme Guyon and her adviser, François Fénelon, archbishop of Cambrai,…

faith healing, recourse to divine power to cure mental or physical disabilities, either in conjunction with orthodox medical care or in place of it. Often an intermediary is involved, whose intercession may be all-important in effecting the desired cure. Sometimes the faith may reside in a

Christianity: The readjustment: …frequently spoken of as a spiritual marriage involving God and the soul. This unitive life has two main aspects. First, while the consciousness of self and the world remains, that consciousness is accompanied by a continuous sense of union with God, as Teresa of Ávila clearly shows in discussing the…

Saint Nilus of Ancyra: …an early master of Christian spirituality, balancing religious insight with worldly astuteness. He seems to have coined the term “spiritual philosophy” to indicate his central theme of casting Christ as man’s effective exemplar for controlling his impulses. The object of this discipline, initiated by a divine gift or grace, is…

Mary Gordon: …Gordon’s works of nonfiction are Spiritual Quests: The Art and Craft of Religious Writing (1988) and Good Boys and Dead Girls and Other Essays (1991). She also wrote the memoirs The Shadow Man (1996), Seeing Through Places (2000), and Circling My Mother (2007).

English literature: Other novelists: … (1752) and Richard Graves in The Spiritual Quixote (1773) responded inventively to the influence of Miguel de Cervantes, also discernible in the writing of Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne. Cervantes’s influence was much increased by a series of translations of his Don Quixote, including Smollett’s of 1755. This particular work of…

Feofan Prokopovich: …drawing up in 1720 the Spiritual Regulations, a new constitution for Orthodoxy. Appointed synodal first vice president, he was responsible for the legislative reform of the entire Russian church, subordinating it to the secular and spiritual authority of Tsar Peter, and for effecting a church-state relationship, sometimes termed a Protestantized…

spiritualism, in philosophy, a characteristic of any system of thought that affirms the existence of immaterial reality imperceptible to the senses. So defined, spiritualism embraces a vast array of highly diversified philosophical views. Most patently, it applies to any philosophy accepting the