Ariana DeBose: Career: …on the musical parody series Schmigadoon! In the show’s first season she played the role of Emma Tate, a take on the character Marian Paroo from The Music Man, and in the second season she portrayed the Emcee, a parody of the Emcee role in Cabaret. DeBose also voiced the…

Wilco: Schmilco (2016) was largely acoustic, quiet, and personal. In 2017 Wilco went on hiatus, and Tweedy released Together at Last, a collection of solo acoustic versions of previously released Wilco songs. He then recorded original material for Warm (2018) and Warmer (2019). During this time…

Poco: Later members included Timothy B. Schmit (b. October 30, 1947, Sacramento, California) and Paul Cotton (b. February 26, 1943, Los Angeles, California).

Carl Schmitt was a German conservative jurist and political theorist, best known for his critique of liberalism, his definition of politics as based on the distinction between friends and enemies, and his overt support of Nazism. Schmitt studied law in Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg, graduating with a

Florent Schmitt was a composer known for his orchestral works. He studied at Nancy and under Massenet and Fauré at the Paris Conservatoire. In 1900, he won the Prix de Rome with his lyric scene Sémiramis. He gained fame with the Psaume XLVI (1904) for chorus and orchestra, the ballet La Tragédie de

Harrison Schmitt is an American geologist, astronaut, and politician who was part of the Apollo space program’s last flight (1972). He later served in the U.S. Senate (1977–83). Schmitt was educated at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, the University of Oslo, and Harvard

Harrison Schmitt is an American geologist, astronaut, and politician who was part of the Apollo space program’s last flight (1972). He later served in the U.S. Senate (1977–83). Schmitt was educated at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, the University of Oslo, and Harvard

Harrison Schmitt is an American geologist, astronaut, and politician who was part of the Apollo space program’s last flight (1972). He later served in the U.S. Senate (1977–83). Schmitt was educated at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, the University of Oslo, and Harvard

Third Reich: The Enabling Act and the Nazi revolution: …the Ministry of Economy was Kurt Schmitt, director-general of the largest insurance company in Germany, while Hjalmar Schacht, the new president of the Reichsbank (appointed on March 16), set his face firmly against radical anticapitalist experiments.

Hungary: Economic and social change: Pál Schmitt had plagiarized significant portions of his 1992 doctoral dissertation. A subsequent investigation by the university that had conferred the degree revealed that Schmitt had copied extensively from a pair of sources, and he was stripped of his degree. In a blow to the…

Italo Svevo was an Italian novelist and short-story writer, a pioneer of the psychological novel in Italy. Svevo (whose pseudonym means “Italian Swabian”) was the son of a German-Jewish glassware merchant and an Italian mother. At 12 he was sent to a boarding school near Würzburg, Ger. He later

Megaupload: …computer service created by entrepreneur Kim Schmitz that was shut down in 2012 by the United States government after its founders were charged for violating antipiracy laws. It was based in Hong Kong.

Million Man March: along with Marion Barry and Kurt Schmoke, then the mayors of Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland, respectively. “Let our choices be for life, for protecting our women, our children, keeping our brothers free of drugs, free of crime,” Schmoke told the crowd, which assembled on the Mall. It was reported…

John Neville Keynes: …the followers of German economist Gustav von Schmoller, who advocated an inductive approach. Keynes, by contrast, insisted that both induction and deduction were essential components of sound economic analysis. He felt that inductive reasoning provided the general premises upon which deduction had to be based and that deduction resulted in…

White Rose: members—Hans Scholl, Willi Graf, and Alexander Schmorell—were medical students at the University of Munich. While on the Eastern Front, the trio observed the murder of Jewish civilians by SS troops. When they returned to Munich, the three joined with other students—including Hans’s sister Sophie—to discuss their opposition to the Nazi…

S.S. Schmucker was a theologian and educator who was a principal exponent of the American Lutheran movement, which sought to create a particularly American expression of Lutheranism. Schmucker joined in the establishment of the General Synod (1820) that coordinated the various Lutheran churches in

S.S. Schmucker was a theologian and educator who was a principal exponent of the American Lutheran movement, which sought to create a particularly American expression of Lutheranism. Schmucker joined in the establishment of the General Synod (1820) that coordinated the various Lutheran churches in

Artur Schnabel was an Austrian pianist and teacher whose performances and recordings made him a legend in his own time and a model of scholarly musicianship to all later pianists. Schnabel was a child prodigy and studied in Vienna with the celebrated pianist and teacher Theodor Leschetizky. He

Julian Schnabel is an American painter, printmaker, sculptor, and filmmaker who was one of a number of international painters—including David Salle in the United States, Georg Baselitz in Germany, and Francesco Clemente in Italy—to emerge in the late 1970s whose bold expressive style was termed

sixty-six, two-player card game, ancestral to bezique and pinochle, that was first recorded in 1718 under the name Mariagen-Spiel (German: “the marriage game”). It is still popular in Germany, even more so in Austria under the name Schnapsen (“booze”). The game uses a deck of 24 cards, ranked

Schnauzer, any of three breeds of dog—the Miniature, Standard, and Giant—developed in Germany and noted for their heavily whiskered muzzle, squared body, and hard, wiry coat of black or salt and pepper. The dog’s name stems from the German word for “snout,” schnauze. The Standard, or medium-sized,

Rhine River: History of the Rhine River: In 1840 Max Schneckenburger wrote his patriotic poem “Die Wacht am Rhein” (“The Watch on the Rhine”), which was set to music by Karl Wilhelm in 1854 and became the rousing tune of the Prussian armies in the Franco-German War of 1870–71. One result of this war…

Eifel: …plateau falls into three sections: Schneifel or Schnee-Eifel, Hocheifel, and Voreifel. In the Schneifel (German: “Snow Eifel”), near the Belgian frontier, scrub and forest are common, with cultivation only on the richer soils. The Hocheifel (“High Eifel”), which includes the highest point in the plateau, Hohe Acht (2,451 feet [747…

Carolee Schneemann was an American multimedia artist whose feminist artworks dealt with identity and gender politics and social taboos. She is known for her provocative performance art practices and is considered the progenitor of body art. Schneemann studied philosophy and poetry at Bard College

Ray Harryhausen: …caught the attention of producer Charles Schneer, with whom he would work on the majority of his films.

Piła, city, Wielkopolskie województwo (province), west-central Poland, on the Gwda River. Its economic growth has been steady since World War II. Industries include lumber mills, railroad workshops, potato-processing facilities, and an electric-bulb factory. The city is a railway junction on the

tank: World War I: …the first French tank (the Schneider) amounted to an armoured box on a tractor chassis; 400 were ordered in February 1916. But French tanks were not used until April 1917, whereas British tanks were first sent into action on September 15, 1916. Only 49 were available and their success was…

warship: Armour: The firm Schneider & Cie in France invented an oil-tempering process to produce a homogeneous steel plate that had good resiliency and greater resistance than compound armour. The later addition of nickel further improved its resistance.

warship: Armour: The firm Schneider & Cie in France invented an oil-tempering process to produce a homogeneous steel plate that had good resiliency and greater resistance than compound armour. The later addition of nickel further improved its resistance.

air racing: …series of races for the Schneider Trophy, a truly international speed contest for seaplanes, which was held at various locations around the world, starting with Monaco (1913). The racing series ended in 1931, following three consecutive victories by the English entrant (in 1927, 1929, and 1931), as under the trophy…

Le Creusot: …until 1836, when the brothers Adolphe and Eugène Schneider founded the Société des Forges et Ateliers du Creusot (“Creusot Forge and Workshop Company”), which produced the first French locomotives as well as armour plate.

Jeopardy!: The super-champion era: 5 million Amy Schneider, 40 games won, the fourth highest regular-season earnings with about $1.3 million, the first openly transgender contestant to make the 2022 Tournament of Champions, which she ultimately won Mattea Roach, 23 games won, the fifth longest winning streak Ryan Long, 16 games won,…

Bob Rafelson: Early work: …of Columbia Pictures), Rafelson met Bert Schneider, with whom he formed the independent production company Raybert. Together they created the zany TV situation comedy The Monkees (1966–68), inspired by the Beatles and more particularly by Richard Lester’s Beatles films, A Hard Day’s Night (1964) and Help! (1965). Rafelson had at…

Miracle on Ice: After a near-loss, the Americans run the table: goalie Jim Craig, and American Buzz Schneider tying it with a high shot. The Soviets took a 2–1 lead on a Sergei Makarov goal, but Mark Johnson’s last-second goal of the opening period sent the teams into the first intermission tied at 2 goals each. In a surprise move, the…

kinship: Culturalist accounts: The American anthropologist David Schneider’s American Kinship (1968) is generally acknowledged as one of the first important anthropological studies of kinship in a 20th-century industrialized setting. Rather than taking the ideological basis of kinship for granted or assuming it to be of less importance than strategic interests related…

Eugène Schneider was one of the great industrialists of the 19th century and a prominent figure in French politics. Schneider lost his father when quite young and, left penniless, started working in the banking house of Baron Seillière. He proved to be bright, capable, and energetic and in 1830 was

Kraftwerk: 1946, Krefeld, West Germany) and Florian Schneider (b. 1947, Düsseldorf, West Germany—d. 2020).

Hannes Schneider was an Austrian-born ski instructor who developed what came to be called the Arlberg technique, based on the snowplow, stem, and stem Christiania turns. He helped popularize skiing in the United States. As a teenager, Schneider observed that the then favoured way of skiing, derived

Janet Evanovich is an American novelist known for her mystery series featuring hapless smart-mouthed New Jersey bounty hunter Stephanie Plum. Schneider was raised in a working-class family in South River, New Jersey. She studied painting at Rutgers University’s Douglass College, graduating with a

Johann Agricola was a Lutheran Reformer, friend of Martin Luther, and advocate of antinomianism, a view asserting that Christians are freed by grace from the need to obey the Ten Commandments. At Wittenberg, Agricola was persuaded by Luther to change his course of study from medicine to theology.

Eugène Schneider was one of the great industrialists of the 19th century and a prominent figure in French politics. Schneider lost his father when quite young and, left penniless, started working in the banking house of Baron Seillière. He proved to be bright, capable, and energetic and in 1830 was

Lenny Bruce was an American stand-up comic and social satirist during the 1950s and early ’60s. Although public authorities increasingly denounced his performances as dirty and sick and courts across the United States tried him for obscenity, Bruce was widely esteemed by artists and intellectuals

Maria Schneider is an American composer and conductor who was instrumental in revitalizing the popularity of big band music in the 21st century by enlivening modern classical arrangements with unique melodies written to the strengths of the musicians within her ensemble—works that she often

Maria Schneider is an American composer and conductor who was instrumental in revitalizing the popularity of big band music in the 21st century by enlivening modern classical arrangements with unique melodies written to the strengths of the musicians within her ensemble—works that she often

Georg Philipp Telemann: Legacy of Georg Philipp Telemann: …formed, largely through studies by Max Schneider and Romain Rolland. New editions of his work have appeared, especially since the 1930s, and the interest of players, conductors, and publishers has increased.

German literature: The 1970s and ’80s: …generational differences, brilliantly developed by Peter Schneider in Vati (1987; “Daddy”), in which a young German lawyer travels to South America to meet his father, who has fled there to escape trial for Nazi crimes (the figure of the father is modeled on the Nazi doctor Josef Mengele). Auslöschung: ein…

Romy Schneider was a German film actress. (Read Martin Scorsese’s Britannica essay on film preservation.) The popular Sissi series of movies about the Austro-Hungarian royal family brought the daughter of actor Wolf Albach-Retty and 1930s film star Magda Schneider popular recognition throughout the

Vreni Schneider is a Swiss Alpine skier who was the dominant female skier of her generation and one of the greatest skiers in the history of the slalom and giant slalom events. She was the first woman to accumulate three gold medals in Alpine skiing. A shoemaker’s daughter from the tiny town of Elm

attention: Memory and habituation: Shiffrin and Walter Schneider in 1977 on the basis of experiments involving visual search. Their theory of detection, search, and attention distinguishes between two modes of processing information: controlled search and automatic detection. Controlled search is highly demanding of attentional capacity and is usually serial in nature.…

stagecraft: Projections and special effects: …Wagner’s music dramas designed by Gunther Schneider-Siemssen elaborated this concept to achieve even more dramatic and sumptuous effects; Schneider-Siemssen filled the vast, extra-wide stage with patterns of light in depth, softened with scrims (loosely woven meshes that diffuse the light) and translucent drops (backdrops with sections dyed to transmit some…

Wiley B. Rutledge, Jr.: …to salute the flag, and Schneiderman v. United States, the case of a California resident whose naturalization had been revoked because of his communist beliefs. In both cases he voted with the court’s liberal bloc.

Eifel: …plateau falls into three sections: Schneifel or Schnee-Eifel, Hocheifel, and Voreifel. In the Schneifel (German: “Snow Eifel”), near the Belgian frontier, scrub and forest are common, with cultivation only on the richer soils. The Hocheifel (“High Eifel”), which includes the highest point in the plateau, Hohe Acht (2,451 feet [747…

Theodore Christian Schneirla was an American animal psychologist who performed some of the first studies on the behaviour patterns of army ants. Schneirla was educated at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (M.S., 1925; Sc.D., 1928), and joined the staff of New York University in 1928. He made

Berlin: Transportation: …the Stadt- or Schnellbahn (S-Bahn), a largely elevated and partly underground railway system, began in 1871, and building of the subway, or Untergrundbahn (U-Bahn), was initiated in 1897. By World War II the city had one of the finest rapid transit systems in Europe. After the erection of the…

pottery: Stoneware: …on tall, tapering tankards (Schnellen), which were provided with pewter or silver mounts. The Doppelfrieskrüge were jugs with two molded friezes (usually portraying classical subjects) around the middle. They and the tankards were made in Raeren brownware by Jan Emens, surnamed Mennicken, in the last quarter of the 16th…

Arp Schnitger was one of the most skilled organ builders of the Baroque era, whose fine instruments inspired composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach. Schnitger was born into a family of woodworkers; his father was a carver, and Arp was apprenticed to a cousin at age 18. Three years after his

Johann Agricola was a Lutheran Reformer, friend of Martin Luther, and advocate of antinomianism, a view asserting that Christians are freed by grace from the need to obey the Ten Commandments. At Wittenberg, Agricola was persuaded by Luther to change his course of study from medicine to theology.

Alfred Schnittke was a postmodernist Russian composer who created serious, dark-toned musical works characterized by abrupt juxtapositions of radically different, often contradictory, styles, an approach that came to be known as “polystylism.” Schnittke’s father was a Jewish journalist who had been

schnitzel, a thin meat cutlet, pounded until tender and then breaded and fried, that is a culinary staple in German-speaking countries and communities. The Americanized version of the dish is chicken-fried steak. Schnitzel comes from the German verb schnitten, meaning “to cut.” The meat used in a

Mehmed Emin Pasha was a physician, explorer, and governor of the Equatorial province of Egyptian Sudan who contributed vastly to the knowledge of African geography, natural history, ethnology, and languages. In 1865 Schnitzer became a medical officer in the Turkish army and used his leisure to

Arthur Schnitzler was an Austrian playwright and novelist known for his psychological dramas that dissect turn-of-the-century Viennese bourgeois life. Schnitzler, the son of a well-known Jewish physician, took a medical degree and practiced medicine for much of his life, interesting himself

Poodle: Schnoodle (Schnauzer + Poodle), and Pekepoo (Pekingese + Poodle). However, many Poodle breeders deplored the trend and regretted the dilution of carefully managed bloodlines.

Bremen: Geography: …Old Town, especially in the Schnoorviertel, a district that was restored to its original 16th- and 17th-century appearance during the post-World War II reconstruction. Parks, located all over the city, offer a relaxing contrast to Bremen’s often hectic pace. The best known are the Bürgerpark, with its famous rhododendron gardens,…

Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld was a painter and designer who figured importantly in the German Nazarene movement. Schnorr received his earliest instruction from his father, Hans Veit Schnorr, a draftsman, engraver, and painter, and in 1818 he went to Rome where he was associated with a group of

Ludwig Schnorr von Carolsfeld was a German tenor, known for his Wagnerian roles. Schnorr made his first solo appearance in 1855 with the Karlsruhe Opera. He married the singer Malvina Garrigues and moved to Dresden in 1860, where he established himself as a singer in lieder and oratorio as well as

Jimmy Durante was an American comedian whose career in every major entertainment performance medium spanned more than six decades. As a boy, Durante wanted to become a saloon pianist. His father, a barber, bought him a piano and provided intermittent lessons. Although Durante left school in seventh

Jimmy Durante was an American comedian whose career in every major entertainment performance medium spanned more than six decades. As a boy, Durante wanted to become a saloon pianist. His father, a barber, bought him a piano and provided intermittent lessons. Although Durante left school in seventh

Franz Schubert: Early life and career: …induced the young and brilliant Franz von Schober to visit Schubert. Late in 1815 Schober went to the schoolhouse in the Säulengasse, found Schubert in front of a class with his manuscripts piled about him, and inflamed the young composer, a willing listener, with a desire to break free from…

Johann Schober was a police official who was twice prime minister of Austria (1921–22 and 1929–30). He established friendly relations with the Czechoslovak republic but was unable to negotiate a union between Austria and Germany. Schober entered the imperial Austrian police service as a young man

the Go-Go’s: Drummer Gina Schock (b. August 31, 1957, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.) replaced Bello in 1979, and bassist Kathy Valentine (b. January 7, 1959, Austin, Texas, U.S.) replaced Olavarria in 1980. Other members included bassists Paula Jean Brown and Abby Travis (b. November 10, 1969, Los Angeles).

Othmar Schoeck was a Swiss musician, one of the principal composers of lieder of his time. Schoeck studied at Zürich and in 1907 with Max Reger in Leipzig. On his return to Zürich he conducted choral societies until 1917. From 1917 to 1944 he was conductor of the symphony concerts at Sankt Gallen.

Ernest B. Schoedsack was an American film director who made only a few movies, most in collaboration with producer-director Merian C. Cooper, of which the most notable was King Kong (1933). Schoedsack ran away from home in his teens and eventually found work as a surveyor in San Francisco. His

Ernest B. Schoedsack was an American film director who made only a few movies, most in collaboration with producer-director Merian C. Cooper, of which the most notable was King Kong (1933). Schoedsack ran away from home in his teens and eventually found work as a surveyor in San Francisco. His

Victor Schoelcher was a French journalist and politician who was France’s greatest advocate of ending slavery in the empire. Although born into a wealthy porcelain-manufacturing family, Schoelcher showed little inclination for a business career. After a trip to the United States in 1829, where he

Christian Friedrich Schönbein was a German chemist who discovered and named ozone (1840) and was the first to describe guncotton (nitrocellulose). His teaching posts included one at Epsom, England, before he joined the faculty at the University of Basel, Switzerland (1828), where he was appointed

Gallagher and Shean: …the act of “Gallagher and Shean.” They went separate ways from 1914 to 1920, but in the latter year (at the urging of Shean’s sister Minnie Marx, mother of the Marx Brothers) they rejoined to star in the Shubert Brothers’ Cinderella on Broadway, with huge success. They then appeared in…

Arnold Schoenberg was an Austrian-American composer who created new methods of musical composition involving atonality, namely serialism and the 12-tone row. He was also one of the most-influential teachers of the 20th century; among his most-significant pupils were Alban Berg and Anton Webern.

Arnold Schoenberg was an Austrian-American composer who created new methods of musical composition involving atonality, namely serialism and the 12-tone row. He was also one of the most-influential teachers of the 20th century; among his most-significant pupils were Alban Berg and Anton Webern.

grassland: Biota: >Schoenefeldia. Other species, which are highly palatable to grazing animals, are now restricted to rocky sites that offer some protection; these species may have once been far more widespread and important. In many places where shrubs and small trees occur the vegetation would be called…

Rudolf Schoenheimer was a German-born American biochemist whose technique of “tagging” molecules with radioactive isotopes made it possible to trace the paths of organic substances through animals and plants and revolutionized metabolic studies. Schoenheimer was a graduate in medicine from the

Cyperaceae: Distribution and abundance: …Bulbostylis, with approximately 100 species; Schoenus, also with about 100 species; and Mapania, with up to 80 species.

Hannah Kent Schoff was an American welfare worker and reformer who was influential in state and national child welfare and juvenile criminal legislation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Schoff married in 1873 and eventually settled in Philadelphia. She attended the first National Congress

Schöffe, in Germany, a lay jurist or assessor assigned primarily to a lower criminal court to make decisions both on points of law and on fact jointly with professional jurists. A Schöffe may also sit on a higher court. Since 1976, in the higher court, two Schöffen sit along with three professional

printing: The invention of typography—Gutenberg (1450?): …comes from his chief detractor, Johann Schöffer, the son of Peter Schöffer and grandson of Johann Fust. Though Schöffer claimed from 1509 on that the invention was solely his father’s and grandfather’s, the fact is that in 1505 he had written in a preface to an edition of Livy that…

Nicolas Schöffer was a Hungarian-born French artist best known for his sculptures employing mechanical movement, light, and sound. Schöffer studied painting at the School of Fine Arts in Budapest from 1932 to 1935 and then at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He became a French citizen in 1948.

Peter Schöffer was a German printer who assisted Johannes Gutenberg and later opened his own printing shop. Schöffer studied in Paris, where he supported himself as a copyist, and then became an apprentice to Gutenberg in Mainz. He entered the printing business as the partner of Gutenberg’s

Koolau Range: Western lava flows created the Schofield Barracks, a saddle (ridge) 14 miles (22 km) long and 5 miles (8 km) wide between the Koolau Range and the Waianae Range (which parallels the island’s west coast).

Battle of Nashville: Context: John Schofield at its head. Hood first engaged Schofield on November 29 at Spring Hill, Tennessee, just north of the Duck River. He intended to sever Schofield’s access to the Nashville road, but communication between Hood and his subordinates broke down and Schofield slipped past…

Schoharie, county, east-central New York state, U.S., comprising a mountainous region. The principal streams are Schoharie, Cobleskill, and Catskill creeks and West and Manor kills. The main (west) and east branches of the Delaware River originate in the southwestern corner of the county. Water is

marsupial: The gliders have a membrane along either flank, attached to the forelegs and hind legs, that enables these arboreal animals to glide down from a high perch. A few marsupials—such as tree kangaroos, koalas, and some cuscuses—spend most of their lives in trees. The water opossum,…

Charles Bordes: …d’Indy, founded in Paris the Schola Cantorum, a society that in 1896 became a school for church music with Bordes as professor. Its publication, La Tribune de St. Gervais (1895), became the main organ of French musicology. He also began publication of the Anthologie des maîtres religieux primitifs, which provided…

schola cantorum, medieval papal singing school and associated choir, the ancestor of the modern Sistine Choir. According to tradition, the schola cantorum was established by Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) and was reorganized by Pope Gregory I (d. 604), but the first written mention of it dates from the

The Scholar Gipsy, lyric poem by Matthew Arnold, published in Poems (1853). It is a masterful handling of the 10-line stanza that John Keats used in many of his odes. The poem’s subject is a legendary Oxford scholar who gives up his academic life to roam the world with a band of Gypsies, absorbing

Gennadios II Scholarios was the first patriarch of Constantinople (1454–64) under Turkish rule and the foremost Greek Orthodox Aristotelian theologian and polemicist of his time. Scholarios became expert in European philosophy and theology and was called “the Latinist” derisively by his colleagues.

history of publishing: Scholarly journals: The publishing of scholarly journals, begun in the 17th century, expanded greatly in the 19th as fresh fields of inquiry opened up or old ones were further divided into specialties. Numerous learned societies were formed in such fields as classical studies, biblical studies,…

library: University and research libraries: Before the invention of printing, it was common for students to travel long distances to hear famous teachers. Printing made it possible for copies of a teacher’s lectures to be widely disseminated, and from that point universities began to create great libraries. The…

Confucianism: The historical context: …by Chinese historians as the rujia, “scholarly tradition,” that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion.

Wu Jingzi: 1750; The Scholars).

American football: Scholarships and the student athlete: ” College football’s other post-World War II crisis, regarding professionalism, reached a flash point in the late 1940s and early 1950s over athletic scholarships. Subsidizing athletes had been common since the 1920s but was not officially sanctioned and was entirely unregulated,…

aptitude test: The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American College Testing Exam (ACT) are examples of group tests commonly used in the United States to gauge general academic ability; in France the International Baccalaureate exam (le bac) is taken by secondary-school students. Such tests yield a profile…