history of Latin America: Types of Western Hemisphere societies: …indigenous peoples may be called semisedentary. They lacked the permanent-site agriculture and the fixed borders of the sedentary peoples and were apparently far less numerous, but they had shifting agriculture and sizable, if frequently moving, settlements. They were found above all in relatively temperate forested areas. The third category that…

Rat Islands: Semisopochnoi Volcano, which rises to 4,005 feet (1,221 metres), has erupted several times since the 18th century, and the region continues to be seismically active.

species: Speciation: At the second stage are incipient species, or semispecies; individuals of these groups rarely interbreed, and all their male offspring are sterile. Natural selection separates incipient species into sibling species, which do not mate at all but which in morphology, or structure and form, are nearly indistinguishable. Sibling species then…

semispinalis muscle, any of the deep muscles just to either side of the spine that arise from the transverse processes (side projections) of the lower vertebrae and reach upward across several vertebrae to insert at the spines of vertebrae farther up, except for the upper segment (semispinalis

radiation: Damage to chromosomes: …in this way is termed semisterile. Because the number of his descendants is correspondingly lower than normal, such chromosome structural changes tend to die out in successive generations.

petroleum production: Deep and ultradeep water: Semisubmersible deepwater production platforms are more stable. Their buoyancy is provided by a hull that is entirely underwater, while the operational platform is held well above the surface on supports. Normal wave action affects such platforms very little. These platforms are commonly kept in place…

petroleum production: Deep and ultradeep water: Semisubmersible deepwater production platforms are more stable. Their buoyancy is provided by a hull that is entirely underwater, while the operational platform is held well above the surface on supports. Normal wave action affects such platforms very little. These platforms are commonly kept in place…

Aleut: …extended family households in well-insulated semisubterranean homes. Kinship was reckoned through the mother’s line. A chief, generally a seasoned and talented hunter, might govern several villages or an entire island. His rule, however, was based on his wisdom, experience, and ability to build consensus rather than on raw power.

penicillin: …of mold fermentation) and the semisynthetic penicillins (those in which the structure of a chemical substance—6-aminopenicillanic acid—found in all penicillins is altered in various ways). Because it is possible to change the characteristics of the antibiotic, different types of penicillin are produced for different therapeutic purposes.

Semite, obsolete term, popularized in the 19th century, that originally described a member of any people who speak one of the Semitic languages, a family of languages that includes Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, Aramaic, and Tigrinya, among others. The term was later used in an ethnic sense, even though

North Semitic alphabet, the earliest fully developed alphabetic writing system. It was used in Syria as early as the 11th century bc and is probably ancestral, either directly or indirectly, to all subsequent alphabetic scripts, with the possible exception of those scripts classified as South

South Semitic alphabet, any of a group of minor scripts originating in the Arabian Peninsula in about 1000 bc, possibly related to the writing system used in the Sinaitic inscriptions. These scripts, most of which were used only in the Arabian Peninsula, are of note because of their great age and

Semitic languages, languages that form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Members of the Semitic group are spread throughout North Africa and Southwest Asia and have played preeminent roles in the linguistic and cultural landscape of the Middle East for more than 4,000 years. In the

Afro-Asiatic languages, languages of common origin found in the northern part of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and some islands and adjacent areas in Western Asia. About 250 Afro-Asiatic languages are spoken today by a total of approximately 250 million people. Numbers of speakers per language

microtonal music: …that differ from the standard semitones (half steps) of a tuning system or scale. In the division of the octave established by the tuning system used on the piano, equal temperament, the smallest interval (e.g., between B and C, F and F♯, A♭ and A) is the semitone, an interval…

truck: Types and definitions: …weight and load of a semitrailer, which is a truck trailer equipped with one or more axles and constructed so that the end and a substantial part of its own weight and that of its load rests upon a truck tractor. In contrast, a full trailer is constructed so that…

approximant, in phonetics, a sound that is produced by bringing one articulator in the vocal tract close to another without, however, causing audible friction (see fricative). Approximants include semivowels, such as the y sound in “yes” or the w sound in

Johann Salomo Semler was a German Lutheran theologian who was a major figure in the development of biblical textual criticism during his tenure (1753–91) as professor of theology at the University of Halle. Semler was a disciple of the rationalist Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten, whom he succeeded on his

Semliki River, waterway connecting Lakes Edward and Albert, in the Western Rift Valley. It issues from the northwestern end of Lake Edward in Congo (Kinshasa) and meanders for 143 miles (230 km) north-northeast along the western foot of the Ruwenzori Range to Lake Albert, the latter part of its

Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician who discovered the cause of puerperal (childbed) fever and introduced antisepsis into medical practice. Educated at the universities of Pest and Vienna, Semmelweis received his doctor’s degree from Vienna in 1844 and was appointed assistant at the

Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician who discovered the cause of puerperal (childbed) fever and introduced antisepsis into medical practice. Educated at the universities of Pest and Vienna, Semmelweis received his doctor’s degree from Vienna in 1844 and was appointed assistant at the

Ignaz Semmelweis was a Hungarian physician who discovered the cause of puerperal (childbed) fever and introduced antisepsis into medical practice. Educated at the universities of Pest and Vienna, Semmelweis received his doctor’s degree from Vienna in 1844 and was appointed assistant at the

Semmering, most easterly and lowest (3,232 feet [985 metres]) of the great Alpine passes, at the boundary between Bundesländer (federal provinces) Steiermark (Styria) and Niederösterreich (Lower Austria), in east-central Austria. Situated in the watershed dividing the Mur and Leitha drainage

Raphael Semmes was an American Confederate naval officer whose daring raids in command of the man-of-war “Alabama” interfered with Union merchant shipping during the middle two years of the American Civil War (1861–65). Appointed a midshipman in the U.S. Navy in 1826, Semmes studied law while

Hungarian literature: Writing after 1945: Esterházy’s Semmi művészet (2008; Not Art: A Novel) depicts a football- (soccer-) obsessed mother’s relationship with her son.

Furies, in Greco-Roman mythology, the chthonic goddesses of vengeance. They were probably personified curses, but possibly they were originally conceived of as ghosts of the murdered. According to the Greek poet Hesiod, they were the daughters of Gaea (Earth) and sprang from the blood of her

Semnān, chief city and county (shahrestān) in Semnān ostān (province), northern Iran; it lies 3,734 feet (1,138 metres) above sea level on a large plain at the southern foot of the Elburz Mountains. In the city are an ornamented minaret (12th century) and several large places of worship. Semnān is

Semnān, ostān (province), northern Iran, bounded by the ostāns of Raẕavī Khorāsān and South Khorāsān on the east, Eṣfahān on the south, Qom and Tehrān on the west, and Māzandarān and North Khorāsān on the north. The northern half of the region is an extension of the Elburz Mountains pierced by

Iranian languages: Dialects: Semnānī, spoken east of Tehrān, forms a transitional stage between the central dialects and the Caspian dialects. The latter are divided into two groups, Gīlakī and Māzandarānī (Tabarī). Also closely related is Tālishī, spoken on the west coast of the Caspian Sea on both sides…

Germanic peoples: …Brandenburg, Saxony, and Thuringia; the Semnones, living around the Havel and the Spree rivers, were a Suebic people, as were the Langobardi (Lombards), who lived northwest of the Semnones. Among the seven peoples who worshiped the goddess Nerthus were the Angli (Angles), centred on the peninsula of Angeln in eastern…

langur: The gray, or Hanuman, langur (S. entellus) of the Indian subcontinent is almost black when newborn and gray, tan, or brown as an adult. Regarded as sacred in Hinduism, it spends a good deal of time on the ground and roams at will in villages and temples of…

langur: …in the male of the Himalayan langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus). Leaf monkeys have long fur, and many species have characteristic caps or crests of long hair. Colour varies among species but is commonly gray, red, brown, or black, and adults usually have black faces. The colour of the young, born singly…

Bouillon: …southeastern Belgium, lying on the Semois River in the Ardennes. It was long known for the ducal title connected with it.

semolina, purified middlings of hard wheat used in making pasta; also, the coarse middlings used for breakfast cereals, puddings, and polenta. Various plain macaroni products are made by combining the correct form of semolina, from durum wheat, with water. The use of hard durum semolina contributes

semantics, the philosophical and scientific study of meaning in natural and artificial languages. The term is one of a group of English words formed from the various derivatives of the Greek verb sēmainō (“to mean” or “to signify”). The noun semantics and the adjective semantic are derived from

Waldo Semon was an American chemist known principally for his discovery of plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC). He obtained a doctorate from the University of Washington and subsequently worked for the B.F. Goodrich Company in Akron, Ohio. PVC had been prepared as early as 1872, but commercial

Waldo Semon was an American chemist known principally for his discovery of plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC). He obtained a doctorate from the University of Washington and subsequently worked for the B.F. Goodrich Company in Akron, Ohio. PVC had been prepared as early as 1872, but commercial

chub: …creek and hornyhead chubs (Semotilus atromaculatus and Nocomis, sometimes Hybopsis, biguttata). The creek chub is found in quiet streams in eastern and central North America. Bluish above and silvery below, with a dark spot at the base of the dorsal fin, it grows to about 30 cm (1 foot).…

Battle of Sempach, (July 9, 1386), decisive victory won by the Swiss Confederation in its struggle with the Austrian Habsburgs. At Meiersholz, near Sempach, Swiss confederate forces from Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Lucern met an Austrian army led by the Habsburg duke Leopold III of Tirol and his

John Philip Sousa: They include the famous “Semper Fidelis” (1888), which became the official march of the U.S. Marine Corps, “The Washington Post” (1889), “The Liberty Bell” (1893), and “The Stars and Stripes Forever” (1897).

Dresden: The contemporary city: …north of the Zwinger, the Semper Gallery (1846) was destroyed in 1945 but was reopened in 1960, with renovations continuing into the 1990s. The gallery houses important Renaissance and Baroque paintings by Italian, Dutch, and Flemish masters, including Raphael’s Sistine Madonna (1513). The Japanese Palace, formerly housing a manuscript and…

Gottfried Semper was an architect and writer on art who was among the principal practitioners of the Neo-Renaissance style in Germany and Austria. Semper studied in Munich and Paris and from 1826 to 1830 travelled in Italy and Greece, studying classical architecture. He practiced architecture in

houseleek, (genus Sempervivum), genus of about 30 species of low-growing succulent plants in the stonecrop family (Crassulaceae), native to Europe, Morocco, and western Asia. The name houseleek refers to the growth of some species on thatched roofs in Europe; live-forever indicates their hardiness

houseleek: Major species: Cobweb houseleek (S. arachnoideum), with leaf tips connected by weblike strands, has also yielded many desirable varieties. Job’s beard (S. heuffelii) is a perennial with a rosette of leaves that range from gray to purple-green. Teneriffe houseleek (S. ciliosum) is noted for its attractive wooly…

echeveria: Many are popularly called hen-and-chicks because of the way new plantlets, or offsets, develop in a cluster around the parent plant. The usually broad fleshy leaves have waxy, velvety, or powdery surfaces and are often iridescent and sometimes red-edged when in bright sunlight. Echeverias are popular with collectors of…

Robert Sempill was a Scottish poet who first used the metre that became the standard form for the Scottish humorous elegy. The son of the poet Sir James Sempill of Beltrees, he was educated at the University of Glasgow. He wrote the elegy “The Life and Death of Habbie Simson, the Piper of

Sir James Sempill was a Scottish poet remembered for his satirical poem A picktooth for the Pope, or the packman’s paternoster (1630?), an antipapal dialogue between a peddler and a priest written in rhyming couplets. Born into a family of Scottish poets, he was reared with the young King James VI.

Elio Vittorini: …strizza l’occhio al frejus (1947; The Twilight of the Elephant); and another allegory, Le donne di Messina (1949; Women on the Road). Vittorini’s critical writings are collected in Diario in pubblico (1957; “Public Diary”) and the posthumously published Le due tensione: appunti per una ideologia della letteratura (1967; “The Two…

Western architecture: Italy: …in Milan (1801–14), and the Arch of Sempione in Milan (1806–38), a Roman triumphal arch similar to the contemporary Parisian Arc du Carrousel. Luigi Canina’s Greek propylea, or gateway, at the entrance to the Villa Borghese (1827–29); Carlo Barabino’s Doric Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa (1826–28); and Giuseppe Japelli’s meat market…

Ellen Churchill Semple was an American geographer known for promoting the view that the physical environment determines human history and culture, an idea that provoked much controversy until superseded by later antideterministic approaches. Semple earned B.A. (1882) and M.A. (1891) degrees from

Langston Hughes: Documenting African American culture and posthumous works: Semple, familiarly called Simple, who appeared in Hughes’s columns in the Chicago Defender and the New York Post and later in book form and on the stage. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel, appeared in 1994. Some of his political exchanges…

Saint Gilbert of Sempringham: …or Sempringham Order), commonly called Gilbertines, the only medieval religious order of English origin.

Indian philosophy: God, self, and body: …distinguished from the mind (chitta): the mind is viewed as an object, an aggregate. This argument is used to prove the existence of a self other than the mind. The mental state is not self-intimating; it is known in introspection. It cannot know both itself and its object. It…

Kemalpaşazâde was a historian, poet, and scholar who is considered one of the greatest Ottoman historians. Born into an illustrious military family, as a young man he served in the army of İbrahim Paşa, vezir (minister) to Sultan Bayezid II. He later studied under several famous religious scholars

Candar Dynasty: …dynasty took its name from Şemseddin Yaman Candar, who served in the army of the Seljuq sultan Masʿūd II (reigned 1283–98) and was awarded the Eflani region, west of Kastamonu, in return for his services. Candar’s son Süleyman captured Kastamonu and Sinop and in 1314 accepted the suzerainty of the…

Kublai Khan: Social and administrative policy: …formed the second group, the semuren, persons with special status. That class furnished the higher officialdom. In addition, its members, with their worldwide contacts and their privileged status, formed a new breed of merchants and speculators. Like the Mongols, they were exempt from taxation and enjoyed preferential use of the…

Amhara: …kidan (also called serat or semanya [“eighty”]) is marriage by civil contract. It is by far the most common form, though a great percentage of such unions end in divorce. Qurban marriages are performed in church and are regarded as sacred; they cannot be dissolved, even after the death of…

Sergey Prokofiev: Soviet period of Sergey Prokofiev: …drama of folk life his Semyon Kotko, depicting events of the civil war in Ukraine (1939). The basis of the brilliantly modernized opéra bouffe Betrothal in a Monastery (composed in 1940, produced in 1946) was the play The Duenna, by the 18th-century British dramatist Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Testing his powers…

Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov was a Soviet physical chemist who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with Sir Cyril Hinshelwood for research in chemical kinetics. He was the second Soviet citizen (after the émigré writer Ivan Bunin) to receive a Nobel Prize. Semyonov was educated in St.

Peter I: Youth and accession: …in 1687, the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky Guards regiments were formed—to become the nucleus of a new Russian Army.

R-7, Soviet/Russian missile and launch vehicle. Under the direction of the rocket pioneer Sergey Korolyov, the Soviet Union during the 1950s developed an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) that was capable of delivering a heavy nuclear warhead to American targets. That ICBM, called the R-7

Jiří Trnka: …Schweik), Sen Noci Svatojanské (1959; A Midsummer Night’s Dream), considered by some critics to be his masterpiece, and Ruka (1964; The Hand). Trnka redesigned puppets especially for the camera: their range of movement was limited, their heads were enlarged, and their facial expressions were limited chiefly to the area around…

Sen Rikyū was a Japanese tea master who perfected the tea ceremony and raised it to the level of an art. Sen Rikyū redefined the tea ceremony in all its aspects: the rules of procedure, the utensils, the teahouse architecture (of which he designed several styles), and even the tea-garden

Sen Rikyū was a Japanese tea master who perfected the tea ceremony and raised it to the level of an art. Sen Rikyū redefined the tea ceremony in all its aspects: the rules of procedure, the utensils, the teahouse architecture (of which he designed several styles), and even the tea-garden

Spirited Away, Japanese animated fantasy film, released in 2001, that is one of the most acclaimed works by master director Miyazaki Hayao. The movie was for a time the highest-grossing film in Japanese history and won numerous awards, including the prestigious Golden Bear at the Berlin

Amartya Sen is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory and for his interest in the problems of society’s poorest members. Sen is best known for his work on the causes of famine, which led to

Keshab Chunder Sen was a Hindu philosopher and social reformer who attempted to incorporate Christian theology within the framework of Hindu thought. Although not of the Brahman class (varna), Sen’s family was prominent in Calcutta (Kolkata), and he was well educated. At age 19 he joined the Brahmo

Keshab Chunder Sen was a Hindu philosopher and social reformer who attempted to incorporate Christian theology within the framework of Hindu thought. Although not of the Brahman class (varna), Sen’s family was prominent in Calcutta (Kolkata), and he was well educated. At age 19 he joined the Brahmo

Mrinal Sen was an Indian filmmaker who used a range of aesthetic styles to explore the social and political realities of his homeland. After studying physics at Calcutta University, Sen worked as a journalist, a medicine salesman, and a film sound technician. His interest in both filmmaking and

Sushmita Sen is an Indian model and actress who made history by becoming the first Indian woman to win the Miss Universe international beauty pageant, in 1994, at age 18. In addition to featuring in television commercials, Sen has acted in Hindi, Tamil, and Bengali movies as well as in a streaming

Sena, town, central Mozambique, on the Zambezi River. A river port and railway junction, it has an economy based on sugarcane cultivation and processing. Sena Sugar Estates Ltd., a formerly British-owned company that was granted a large land subconcession from the Zambezia Company, had estates at

Malawi: Ethnic groups and languages: Tumbuka, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, Ngonde, and the Lambya/Nyiha. All the African languages spoken are Bantu languages. From 1968 to 1994, Chewa was the only national language; it is now one of the numerous languages used in print and broadcast media and is

Sena dynasty, Indian dynasty ruling in Bengal in the 11th and 12th centuries ce. Their ancestors came from the south and established themselves as chieftains in southwestern Bengal early in the 11th century. Hemantasena, the founder of the dynasty, was originally a tributary of the Pala dynasty. In

Senigallia, town and episcopal see, Marche regione, central Italy. Senigallia lies along the Adriatic Sea at the mouth of the Misa River. Founded by the Senonian Gauls in the 6th century bc, it became the Roman colony of Sena Gallica in 289 bc. In the 6th century it was one of the five cities of

Siena, city, central Italy, in the Toscana (Tuscany) regione. It lies about 30 miles (48 km) south of Florence. The city was important in history as a commercial and banking city until surpassed by Florence in the 13th–14th century. The site of Siena was originally an Etruscan settlement that later

Sena: Sena Sugar Estates Ltd., a formerly British-owned company that was granted a large land subconcession from the Zambezia Company, had estates at Luabo and Marromeu in the Zambezi River delta and also operated a copra plantation near Chinde, a forestry concession, and a cattle ranch…

Portuguese literature: From monarchy to republic: Jorge de Sena was an engineer by profession who lived in exile in Brazil (1959–65) and the United States (1965–78). His work as a critic reflected his encyclopaedic mind and scientific training, and his poetry showed him to be the most important poet of midcentury,…

Jean Sénac was a French-language poet active in the cause of national literature in Algeria. Sénac’s early poetry, as in the volume Poèmes (1954), is bitter and regretful in its treatment of his childhood but optimistic with regard to his own creative possibilities as a man as well as to those of

Spain: Constitutional framework: …and an upper chamber, the Senate (Senado). As with most legislatures in parliamentary systems, more power is vested in the lower chamber. The Congress of Deputies has 350 members, who are elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage. The Senate is described in the constitution as the “chamber of territorial…

Gal Oya: …and smaller rivers to create Senanayake Samudra—the largest tank (reservoir) in Sri Lanka, at Bintenne. The project has opened up 100,000 acres (40,000 hectares) of land to the cultivation of paddy, sugarcane, chilies, potatoes, and other crops throughout the eastern coast. The Gal Oya National Park (founded 1954) has an…

D. S. Senanayake was the first prime minister of Ceylon (1947–52) when the country became independent of Great Britain. Brought up as a devout Buddhist, Senanayake remained in that faith but was educated at the Anglican St. Thomas College in Colombo. After a brief period as a clerk in the surveyor

D. S. Senanayake was the first prime minister of Ceylon (1947–52) when the country became independent of Great Britain. Brought up as a devout Buddhist, Senanayake remained in that faith but was educated at the Anglican St. Thomas College in Colombo. After a brief period as a clerk in the surveyor

hartal: …July 1953, Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake of the United National Party drastically reduced the subsidies, causing the price of rice to triple.

Étienne Pivert de Senancour was a French author of Obermann (1804), one of several early 19th-century novels that describe the sufferings of a sensitive and tormented hero. Rediscovered some 30 years after it first appeared, the book appealed to the taste of the Romantics and their public.

Sri Lanka: Government and society: …of royal absolutism, and the senapati, or commander in chief, was the king’s closest counselor and confidant.

Sri Lanka: Kandy and its struggle with European powers: King Senarath (Senarat) succeeded to the Kandyan throne in 1604 and continued to solicit Dutch support. In 1612 a Dutch envoy, Marcelis Boschouwer, concluded a treaty with Senarath. The king granted the Dutch extensive commercial concessions and a harbour for settlement on the east coast in…

Sri Lanka: Kandy and its struggle with European powers: King Senarath (Senarat) succeeded to the Kandyan throne in 1604 and continued to solicit Dutch support. In 1612 a Dutch envoy, Marcelis Boschouwer, concluded a treaty with Senarath. The king granted the Dutch extensive commercial concessions and a harbour for settlement on the east coast in…

Sénart, community in the départements of Seine-et-Marne and Essonne, Île-de-France région, north-central France. An agglomeration of eight villages southeast of Paris (Cesson, Combs-la-Ville, Tigery, Vert-Saint-Denis, Nandy, Mossy Cramayel, Réau, and Savigny-le-Temple), Sénart is one of the villes

Juan Goytisolo: …novel Señas de identidad (1966; Marks of Identity) is the first of a trilogy that presents a fictionalized account of Goytisolo’s life and celebrates the Moorish roots of contemporary Spain. Reivindicación del Conde don Julián (1970; Count Julian), which is considered his masterwork, experiments with transforming the Spanish language, seen…

Czech Republic: Constitutional framework: …for four-year terms) and a Senate (elected on a district basis for six-year terms).

France: Parliamentary composition and functions: In 2012 the Senate was composed of 348 senators indirectly elected for six years by a collège électoral consisting mainly of municipal councillors in each département, one of the administrative units into which France is divided. The parliament retains its dual function of legislation and control over the…

Senate, in ancient Rome, the governing and advisory council that proved to be the most permanent element in the Roman constitution. Under the early monarchy the Senate developed as an advisory council; in 509 bc it contained 300 members, and a distinction existed within it between the heads of the

United States Senate, one of the two houses of the legislature (Congress) of the United States, established in 1789 under the Constitution. Each state elects two senators for six-year terms. The terms of about one-third of the Senate membership expire every two years, earning the chamber the

France: Parliamentary composition and functions: In 2012 the Senate was composed of 348 senators indirectly elected for six years by a collège électoral consisting mainly of municipal councillors in each département, one of the administrative units into which France is divided. The parliament retains its dual function of legislation and control over the…

Eswatini: Government: The Senate has 30 members, of whom 10 are elected by the House of Assembly and 20 are appointed by the king. The general electorate consists of all citizens over the age of 18 grouped into 55 constituencies (tinkhundla). Each tinkhundla elects one member to the…

bicameral system: Bicameral systems versus unicameral systems: …of the Republic (renamed the Senate in 1958 on the foundation of the Fifth Republic) was practically impotent, the governments operated, in effect, on the unicameral principle. A unitary system of government does not imply a unicameral legislature. Modern constitutional states often retain two chambers even though bicameralism has declined.

Gabon: Constitutional framework: …an upper legislative house (Senate) for the first time in the history of the republic, and the first elections to the Senate (indirect by local councils) were held in early 1997. A constitutional amendment passed by a PDG-dominated Assembly in April 1997 designated that the president of the Senate…

Spain: Constitutional framework: …and an upper chamber, the Senate (Senado). As with most legislatures in parliamentary systems, more power is vested in the lower chamber. The Congress of Deputies has 350 members, who are elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage. The Senate is described in the constitution as the “chamber of territorial…

Italy: The legislature of Italy: …Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. All members of the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) are popularly elected via a system of proportional representation, which serves to benefit minor parties. Most members of the Senate (the higher chamber) are elected in the same manner, but the Senate also includes…

Pakistan: Constitutional framework: The Senate has 100 members, each serving a six-year term. A portion of the senators are chosen by the provincial assemblies; others are appointed. One-third of the senators relinquish their seats every two years.