whistleblower: Legal protections: …the same personalized protection that witness-protection programs offer witnesses at risk of retaliation.

Battle of the Philippine Sea: …Japanese Combined Fleet and the U.S. Fifth Fleet. Known as “the greatest carrier battle of the war,” it accompanied the U.S. landing on Saipan and ended in a complete U.S. victory.

figure skating: Regional and national: …competitions are sanctioned by the USFSA, and the participants and their coaches must be members of that organization. The Ice Skating Institute (ISI) also holds amateur competitions, but, unlike the USFSA, which is the organization for those with interest in Olympic-level or world-level competition, the ISI focuses on the recreational…

Pare Lorentz: Lorentz’ film unit became the United States Film Service in the late 1930s and was expanded to produce motion pictures and shorts for various government agencies. Lorentz directed The Fight for Life (1940), the compelling and starkly realistic story of the struggle of a young doctor against disease and death…

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: It is managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, with headquarters in Fairbanks. One of the great pristine and largely undisturbed wilderness areas of North America, the refuge has been the subject of much controversy because of the potential hydrocarbon reserves within it.

American football: Showmanship on the field: …Football League (1974–75) and the United States Football League (1983–85)—and invested in the Arena Football League (an indoor version of the sport that was played on a shortened field during the NFL’s off-season from 1987 to 2008 and again from 2010 in a new incarnation) and expanded into Europe in…

U.S. Forest Service (USFS), federal agency within the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) charged with oversight, conservation, and stewardship of the nation’s grasslands and national forests. The agency operates with the mission of sustaining the health, diversity, and productivity of the

Earth exploration: Conclusions about the deep Earth: In 1975 the U.S. Geodynamics Committee initiated a research program to explore the continental crust using seismic techniques developed by private industry for the purpose of locating petroleum accumulations in sedimentary rocks. Since then its investigations have been conducted in a number of locales throughout the United States.…

Rocky Mountains: Study and exploration: …surveys were organized by the U.S. government following the American Civil War: the survey of the 40th parallel led by Clarence King (1867–78), the geologic survey of Nebraska and Wyoming led by Ferdinand Hayden (1867–78), the 100th-meridian survey led by George Wheeler (1872–79), and the expeditions to the Green and…

golf: The United States and Canada: …by these promotions that the United States Golf Association (USGA) was instituted in 1894. Its aims were to organize the U.S. Amateur and Open championships and to formulate a set of rules for the game. The founding fathers, two from each club, were from St. Andrew’s, Shinnecock Hills, Chicago, the…

LEED® standards: …devised in 1994 by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC; founded 1993) to encourage sustainable practices design and development by means of tools and criteria for performance measurement. It is “a voluntary, consensus-based, market-driven building rating system based on existing proven technology.” The USGBC has established standards for new construction…

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, museum and memorial to the Holocaust, located in Washington, D.C., U.S. It was dedicated in 1993 to serve as the national Holocaust museum. The museum’s permanent exhibit, titled “The Holocaust,” is divided into three parts—“Nazi Assault,” “Final Solution,”

The U.S. Congress consists of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Each state elects two senators, while seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned by state according to population, with each state receiving a minimum of one representative. After each decennial

United States: The culmination of the New Deal: The U.S. Housing Authority was created in 1937 to provide low-cost public housing. In 1938 the Fair Labor Standards Act established a minimum wage and a maximum work week. Otherwise, the president seldom got what he asked for.

Laurie Anderson: …a massive four-part multimedia extravaganza, United States I–IV. It combined music, photography, film, drawings, and animation with text and consisted of 78 segments organized into four sections: Transportation, Politics, Money, and Love. First performed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in 1983, it ran for more than six hours and…

Angel Island Immigration Station, the principal immigration facility on the West Coast of the United States from 1910 to 1940. Angel Island encompasses an area of about 740 acres (300 hectares) and is located in San Francisco Bay, California, near Alcatraz Island and the Golden Gate Bridge, between

Great Molasses Flood: …Distilling Company, a subsidiary of United States Industrial Alcohol (USIA). At the time, industrial alcohol—then made from fermented molasses—was highly profitable; it was used to make munitions and other weaponry for World War I (1914–18). The tank’s immense size reflected the demand: it measured more than 50 feet (15 metres)…

Edward R. Murrow: …was appointed director of the U.S. Information Agency in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy.

director of national intelligence: …intelligence (DNI), head of the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC), a collection of 18 military and civilian intelligence agencies. With the support of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), the DNI runs the National Intelligence Program, serves in the president’s cabinet, and acts as the government’s principal adviser…

Operation Just Cause, U.S. military action (December 1989–January 1990) that centred on the invasion of Panama for the purposes of removing Gen. Manuel Noriega, the country’s dictatorial de facto ruler, from power and extraditing him to the U.S. to face charges of drug trafficking and money

common law: The development of common law in the United States and other jurisdictions: The first English settlers on the Atlantic Seaboard of North America brought with them only elementary notions of law. Colonial charters conferred upon them the traditional legal privileges of English citizens, such as habeas corpus and the right to trial…

Branch Rickey: …of 1945, Rickey founded the United States League for Black players, whom unwritten law excluded from organized baseball, and he was criticized for encouraging continued segregation in sports. There are no records indicating that the league ever played any games; however, it served as a front that allowed Rickey to…

ship: The Atlantic Ferry: One exception was the Collins Line, which in 1847 owned the four finest ships then afloat—the Arctic, Atlantic, Baltic, and Pacific—and in 1851 the Blue Riband (always a metaphorical rank rather than an actual trophy) given for the speediest crossing of the New York–Liverpool route passed from Cunard’s Acadia…

United States Marine Corps (USMC), separate military service within the U.S. Department of the Navy, charged with the provision of marine troops for seizure and defense of advanced bases and with conducting operations on land and in the air incident to naval campaigns. It is also responsible for

Marine Corps War Memorial, monument in Arlington county, Va., honouring the members of the United States Marine Corps who have served and died in defense of the United States since the founding of the Corps in 1775. The memorial is located near Arlington National Cemetery. It was designed by Horace

United States Merchant Marine Academy, institution of higher education that prepares cadets to serve as officers in the United States merchant marine. The U.S. Merchant Marine Corps was established in 1938; the academy, occupying 68 acres (27.5 hectares) at Kings Point on the north shore of Long

United States midterm elections, general elections that occur every four years in the middle of the U.S. presidential term. The election process mandated by Article I of the United States Constitution, by which all members of the United States House of Representatives and roughly a third of the

United States Military Academy, institution of higher education for the training of commissioned officers for the United States Army. It was originally founded as a school for the U.S. Corps of Engineers with a class of 5 officers and 10 cadets on March 16, 1802. It is one of the oldest service

automotive industry: General Motors: A similar combination, the United States Motor Corporation, was formed in 1910, collapsed in 1912, and was reorganized as the Maxwell Motor Company. General Motors survived. A new reorganization took place after Durant, with backing by E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, regained control in 1916. Durant, who…

United States National Arboretum, arboretum in Washington, D.C., operated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service. The arboretum was established in 1927 by an act of Congress and occupies 446 acres (180 hectares) on the west bank of the Anacostia River. Among the more

U.S. National Guard, reserve group organized by the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force. Every state and territory of the United States has a National Guard, which can be called on by state governors during emergencies including riots and natural disasters. Guard units may also be ordered into active duty

United States Naval Academy, institution of higher education conducted by the U.S. Department of the Navy and located at Annapolis, Md., for the purpose of preparing young men and women to enter the lowest commissioned ranks of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. The academy was founded as a Naval

United States Naval Observatory (USNO), in Washington, D.C., an official source, with the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST; formerly the National Bureau of Standards), for standard time in the United States. The positional measurement of celestial objects for purposes of

Albert Hoyt Taylor: …the radio division of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory from 1923 until 1945.

war college: U.S. Naval War College: The oldest military institution in the United States is the NWC, established in 1884 on Coasters Harbor Island, Newport, Rhode Island, to offer an advanced course of professional study for naval officers. The founding president, Commodore Stephen B. Luce, viewed the…

United States Navy (USN), major branch of the United States armed forces charged with the defense of the country at sea, the seaborne support of the other U.S. military services, and the maintenance of security on the seas wherever the interests of the United States extend. The earliest sea battles

Lori Robinson: …Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM), becoming the highest-ranking woman in United States military history.

United States, country in North America, a federal republic of 50 states. Besides the 48 conterminous states that occupy the middle latitudes of the continent, the United States includes the state of Alaska, at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of Hawaii, in the

boxing: Amateur boxing: The United States of America Amateur Boxing Federation (now USA Boxing), which governs American amateur boxing, was formed after the 1978 passage of a law forbidding the AAU to govern more than one Olympic sport.

national flag consisting of white stars (50 since July 4, 1960) on a blue canton with a field of 13 alternating stripes, 7 red and 6 white. The 50 stars stand for the 50 states of the union, and the 13 stripes stand for the original 13 states. The flag’s width-to-length ratio is 10 to 19.After the

Toni Collette: …in the darkly comic series United States of Tara (2009–11). Her role as the central character, a Midwestern mother suffering from dissociative identity disorder, demanded that Collette evoke an ever-shifting array of personalities. Though the antics of her character’s “alters” often resulted in amusing situations, Collette managed to consistently reveal…

U.S. Open, one of the world’s major golf tournaments, open to both amateur and professional golfers (hence the name). It has been held annually since 1895 under supervision of the United States Golf Association (USGA). (Read Britannica’s biography of Jack Nicklaus, author of this entry.) Since 1898

U.S. Open, international tennis tournament, the fourth and final of the major events that make up the annual Grand Slam of tennis (the other tournaments are the Australian Open, the French Open, and the Wimbledon Championships). (Read Britannica’s biography of Chris Evert.) The U.S. Open is held

Robert Mills: …Treasury (built 1836–42) and the Old Patent Office (built 1836–40; later modified; now part of the Smithsonian Institution) in Washington, D.C.; the wings of Independence Hall in Philadelphia (1807); and the monuments to George Washington in Baltimore, Md. (designed 1814, erected 1815–29), and Washington, D.C. (designed 1836, completed 1884).

five hundred: …devised in 1904 by the United States Playing Card Company. Though later eclipsed by bridge, it still has a substantial American following and has also become the national card game of Australia and New Zealand. Five hundred was devised as a deliberate cross between euchre, with its distinctive “bowers,” and…

bankruptcy fraud: Bust-out schemes: …Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Postal Inspection Service, and the Internal Revenue Service, joined forces to begin actively prosecuting those who attempt to defraud creditors through bankruptcy fraud. Individuals who are found guilty of bankruptcy fraud may be sentenced to a fine of up to $250,000 and a prison…

United States Postal Service (USPS), independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government charged with processing and delivering mail and with protecting the mail from loss, theft, or abuse in accordance with U.S. postal laws. Besides providing mail processing and

Eight Elections That Changed History: 1789: The one that started it all: When talking about presidential elections that changed history, the only place to start is with the one that first made history, that is, the first presidential election.

United States presidential election of 1789, American presidential election held on February 4, 1789, in which George Washington was unanimously chosen as the first president of the United States by electors from 10 of the 13 extant states. Following the Constitutional Convention of May 1787, over

United States presidential election of 1792, American presidential election held in 1792, in which George Washington unanimously won a second term as president of the United States. Suffering from diminished physical abilities, Pres. George Washington had wished to retire at the end of his first

United States presidential election of 1796, American presidential election held in 1796, in which Federalist John Adams defeated Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson. The election of 1796 marked the emergence of the political party system in the United States. In the previous elections of 1789

United States presidential election of 1800, American presidential election held in 1800, in which Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson was elected as the country’s third president after defeating incumbent John Adams. The Framers had viewed political parties with suspicion, but by the 1790s

United States presidential election of 1804, American presidential election held in 1804, in which Democratic-Republican incumbent Thomas Jefferson soundly defeated Federalist candidate Charles C. Pinckney with 162 electoral votes to Pinckney’s 14. Prior to the 1804 presidential election, each

United States presidential election of 1808, American presidential election held in 1808, in which Democratic-Republican candidate James Madison defeated Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney . Deciding not to run for reelection, Pres. Thomas Jefferson unofficially anointed James Madison, his

United States presidential election of 1812, American presidential election held in 1812, in which James Madison defeated DeWitt Clinton. Madison had won a first term overwhelmingly in 1808, and his presidency was—and would continue to be—dominated by foreign affairs. In 1810 he had proclaimed

United States presidential election of 1816, American presidential election held in 1816, in which Democratic-Republican James Monroe defeated Federalist Rufus King with 183 electoral votes to King’s 34. As James Madison prepared to leave office following his second term as president, the election

United States presidential election of 1820, American presidential election, held in 1820, in which the Democratic-Republican James Monroe won reelection in a campaign in which he effectively ran unopposed. With few exceptions, such as the financial panic of 1819 and the ongoing dilemma over the

United States presidential election of 1824, American presidential election held in 1824, in which John Quincy Adams was elected by the House of Representatives after Andrew Jackson won the most popular and electoral votes but failed to receive a majority. Beginning in 1796, caucuses of the

United States presidential election of 1828, American presidential election held in 1828, in which Democrat Andrew Jackson defeated National Republican John Quincy Adams . The election of 1828 was arguably one of the most significant in United States history, ushering in the era of political

United States presidential election of 1832, American presidential election held in 1832, in which Democratic incumbent Andrew Jackson defeated National Republican candidate Henry Clay with 219 electoral votes to Clay’s 49. Though Jackson was still a popular leader as he approached the end of his

United States presidential election of 1836, American presidential election held in 1836, in which Democrat Martin Van Buren defeated several Whig Party candidates led by William Henry Harrison . As Pres. Andrew Jackson ’s second term drew to a close, he unofficially anointed his vice president,

United States presidential election of 1840, American presidential election held in 1840, in which Whig candidate William Henry Harrison defeated incumbent Democratic Pres. Martin Van Buren. By the election of 1840 the two-party system had become firmly entrenched in United States politics, with

United States presidential election of 1844, American presidential election held in 1844 in which Democratic candidate James K. Polk defeated Whig candidate Henry Clay with 170 electoral votes to Clay’s 105. Incumbent John Tyler, who had been vice president under William Henry Harrison and ascended

United States presidential election of 1848, American presidential election held on November 7, 1848, in which Whig candidate Zachary Taylor defeated Democratic nominee Lewis Cass . By early 1848 the acquisition of vast amounts of western land by Pres. James K. Polk over the previous two years—as a

United States presidential election of 1852, American presidential election held on November 2, 1852, in which Democrat Franklin Pierce defeated Whig Winfield Scott. The election of 1852 was contested in the aftermath of the Compromise of 1850, a series of measures passed by the U.S. Congress in an

United States presidential election of 1856, American presidential election held on November 4, 1856, in which Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican John C. Frémont with 174 electoral votes to Frémont’s 114. Whig and former president Millard Fillmore, who ran on the Know-Nothing ticket,

United States presidential election of 1860, American presidential election held on November 6, 1860, in which Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, and Constitutional Union candidate John Bell. The electoral split between Northern

United States presidential election of 1864, American presidential election held on November 8, 1864, in which Republican Pres. Abraham Lincoln defeated Democrat George B. McClellan . As the election occurred during the American Civil War , it was contested only by the states that had not seceded

United States presidential election of 1868, American presidential election held on November 3, 1868, in which Republican Ulysses S. Grant defeated Democrat Horatio Seymour. The election of 1868 was the first to be held after the American Civil War, and central to its outcome were the issues of

United States presidential election of 1872, American presidential election held November 5, 1872, in which Republican incumbent Ulysses S. Grant defeated Liberal Republican and Democratic candidate Horace Greeley with 286 electoral votes. Though 66 electoral votes had been pledged to Greeley, he

United States presidential election of 1876, disputed American presidential election held on November 7, 1876, in which Republican Rutherford B. Hayes defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. Tilden led Hayes by more than 260,000 popular votes, and preliminary returns showed Tilden with 184 electoral

United States presidential election of 1880, American presidential election held on November 2, 1880, in which Republican James A. Garfield defeated Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock. Among presidents who won the popular vote, Garfield’s margin of victory remains the narrowest in history. Because

United States presidential election of 1884, American presidential election held on November 4, 1884, in which Democrat Grover Cleveland defeated Republican James G. Blaine. The election was marked by bitter mudslinging and scandalous accusations that overshadowed substantive issues such as civil

United States presidential election of 1888, American presidential election held on November 6, 1888, in which Republican Benjamin Harrison defeated Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland, winning in the electoral college 233–168 despite losing the popular vote. It was the second time in American

United States presidential election of 1892, American presidential election held on November 8, 1892, in which Democrat Grover Cleveland defeated Republican incumbent Benjamin Harrison. In winning, Cleveland became the first former president to be restored to the office. Harrison’s first term as

United States presidential election of 1896, American presidential election held on November 3, 1896, in which Republican William McKinley defeated Democrat-Populist William Jennings Bryan. The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting in American history. The central issue was the

United States presidential election of 1900, American presidential election held on November 6, 1900, in which Republican incumbent Pres. William McKinley defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan, winning 292 electoral votes to Bryan’s 155. In March 1898, two years into William McKinley’s first

United States presidential election of 1904, American presidential election, held on November 8, 1904, in which Republican incumbent Pres. Theodore Roosevelt soundly defeated Democrat Alton B. Parker. Roosevelt’s win marked the first time that a president not originally elected to the office

United States presidential election of 1908, American presidential election held on November 3, 1908, in which Republican William Howard Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan. The biggest announcement in the run-up to the 1908 presidential election came in 1904 when, on the evening of his

United States presidential election of 1912, American presidential election held on November 5, 1912, in which Democrat Woodrow Wilson defeated Bull Moose (Progressive) candidate and former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt and Republican incumbent president William Howard Taft. Theodore

United States presidential election of 1916, American presidential election held on November 7, 1916, in which Democratic incumbent Woodrow Wilson defeated Republican Charles Evan Hughes in the electoral college 277–254. Though his election in 1912 was largely attributable to the formation of the

United States presidential election of 1920, American presidential election, held on November 2, 1920, in which Republican Warren G. Harding defeated Democrat James M. Cox in a landslide. Well before the campaign was officially under way, it became apparent that the 1920 election would be a

United States presidential election of 1924, American presidential election held on November 4, 1924, in which Republican Calvin Coolidge defeated Democrat John W. Davis. Running as the Progressive Party candidate, Robert M. La Follette captured some one-sixth of the popular vote. Upon the

United States presidential election of 1928, American presidential election held on November 6, 1928, in which Republican Herbert Hoover defeated Democrat Alfred E. Smith in the electoral college 444–87. Republican incumbent Calvin Coolidge unexpectedly announced in August 1927 that he would not

United States presidential election of 1932, American presidential election held on November 8, 1932, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Pres. Herbert Hoover. The 1932 election was the first held during the Great Depression, and it represented a dramatic shift in the

United States presidential election of 1936, American presidential election held on November 3, 1936, in which Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt won reelection, defeating Republican Alf Landon. (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.) In 1932, amid the Great

United States presidential election of 1940, American presidential election held on November 5, 1940, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Wendell L. Willkie. By becoming the first president to win a third term, Roosevelt broke the two-term precedent established by the

United States presidential election of 1944, American presidential election held on November 7, 1944, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Thomas E. Dewey and thus secured his fourth term as president. (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.) In the

United States presidential election of 1948, American presidential election held on November 2, 1948, in which Democratic Pres. Harry S. Truman defeated Republican Thomas E. Dewey. The roots of the 1948 election date to 1940, when Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to run for an unprecedented

United States presidential election of 1952, American presidential election held on November 4, 1952, in which Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower easily defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson. Without an incumbent candidate in the White House, there was intense interest in who would win the nomination

United States presidential election of 1956, American presidential election held on November 6, 1956, in which incumbent Republican Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson. It was the second consecutive election in which Stevenson lost to Eisenhower. In the winter of 1955–56

United States presidential election of 1960, American presidential election held on November 8, 1960, in which Democrat John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Republican Vice Pres. Richard M. Nixon. Kennedy thus became the first Roman Catholic and the youngest person ever elected president. Kennedy was

United States presidential election of 1964, American presidential election held on November 3, 1964, in which Democratic Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Republican Barry Goldwater in one of the largest landslides in U.S. history. The 1964 election occurred just less than one year after the

United States presidential election of 1968, American presidential election held on November 5, 1968, in which Republican Richard M. Nixon defeated Democrat Hubert H. Humphrey. The run-up to the 1968 election was transformed in 1967 when Minnesota’s Democratic senator, Eugene J. McCarthy,

United States presidential election of 1972, American presidential election held on November 7, 1972, in which Republican Pres. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat George McGovern in one of the largest landslides in U.S. history. In January 1971 McGovern announced his

United States presidential election of 1976, American presidential election held on November 2, 1976, in which Democrat Jimmy Carter defeated Republican Pres. Gerald R. Ford. The campaign was conducted in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal that forced Pres. Richard M. Nixon to become the first

United States presidential election of 1980, American presidential election held on November 4, 1980, in which Republican Ronald Reagan defeated incumbent Democratic Pres. Jimmy Carter. A onetime movie star and president of the Screen Actor’s Guild (1947–1952), Reagan was originally a Democrat but

United States presidential election of 1984, American presidential election held on November 6, 1984, in which Republican Ronald Reagan was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat Walter Mondale, a former U.S. vice president. Reagan won 49 states en route to amassing 525 electoral votes to

United States presidential election of 1988, American presidential election held on November 8, 1988, in which Republican George H.W. Bush defeated Democrat Michael Dukakis. The 1988 campaign featured an open contest on both the Republican and Democratic sides, as Republican Pres. Ronald Reagan was

United States presidential election of 1992, American presidential election held on November 3, 1992, in which Democrat Bill Clinton defeated incumbent Republican Pres. George Bush. Independent candidate Ross Perot secured nearly 19 percent of the vote—the highest percentage of any third-party