John Murray: …theologian who founded the first Universalist congregation in the United States. At first a Methodist, Murray sought to refute the Welsh minister James Relly’s unorthodox teaching that Jesus Christ’s suffering and crucifixion brought salvation for all humanity. Instead, he became convinced that Relly was right and began preaching universal salvation.…

Christianity: The relation of the early church to late Judaism: …concept of monotheism, with its universal ideal of salvation (for all nations), and the notion of God’s special choice of Israel. In the Hellenistic Age (323 bce–3rd century ce), the dispersion of the Jews throughout the kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean and the Roman Empire reinforced this universalistic tendency. But…

international law: Jurisdiction: Finally, the universality principle allows for the assertion of jurisdiction in cases where the alleged crime may be prosecuted by all states (e.g., war crimes, crimes against the peace, crimes against humanity, slavery, and piracy).

ethics: Universal prescriptivism: …moral judgments must be “universalizable.” This notion owed something to the ancient Golden Rule and even more to Kant’s first formulation of the categorical imperative. In Hare’s treatment, however, these ideas were refined so as to eliminate their obvious defects. Moreover, for Hare universalizability was not a substantive moral…

history of logic: Leibniz: …a “universally characteristic language” (lingua characteristica universalis) that would, first, notationally represent concepts by displaying the more basic concepts of which they were composed, and second, naturally represent (in the manner of graphs or pictures, “iconically”) the concept in a way that could be easily grasped by readers, no…

Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger: …of what Friedrich Schlegel termed Universalpoesie, a universal, historical, comparative approach to literature. In 1805 he received a government grant to study and travel in Germany and other countries, where he visited Goethe and the leaders of the Romantic movement.

problem of universals, in metaphysics, the question of whether there are universals—“general” things of which particular things are instances or examples or cases—and, if so, what exactly they are and how human knowledge of them is possible. A believer in universals might hold, for example, that,

Willis Tower: Construction and renovations: …an enormous motorized mural named Universe, which he called a “wallmobile.” The tower’s observation deck, the Skydeck, is located on the 103rd floor. In the early 21st century the Skydeck underwent a major renovation that included the addition of the Ledge—four glass boxes that extend 4.3 feet (1.3 meters) from…

universe, the whole cosmic system of matter and energy of which Earth, and therefore the human race, is a part. Humanity has traveled a long road since societies imagined Earth, the Sun, and the Moon as the main objects of creation, with the rest of the universe being formed almost as an

history of logic: Boole and De Morgan: The universal class or term—which he called simply “the Universe”—was represented by the numeral “1,” and the null class by “0.” The juxtaposition of terms (for example, “AB”) created a term referring to the intersection of two classes or terms. The addition sign signified the non-overlapping…

public opinion: The universe: The term universe is used to denote whatever body of people is being studied. Any segment of society, so long as it can be replicated, can represent a universe: elderly people, teenagers, institutional investors, editors, politicians, and so on. Effort must be made to…

James T. Farrell: …to be a 25-volume cycle, A Universe of Time, of which he completed 10 volumes. His complete works include 25 novels and 17 collections of short stories. Among his works of nonfiction are A Note on Literary Criticism (1936), a discussion of Marxist literature, and Reflections at Fifty (1954), personal…

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), international basis of civil and scientific time, which was introduced on January 1, 1960. The unit of UTC is the atomic second, and UTC is widely broadcast by radio signals. These signals ultimately furnish the basis for the setting of all public and private

Germán Arciniegas: …and magazines, founding the review Universidad (“University”) in Bogotá in 1928 and becoming director of the newspaper El tiempo (“The Times”) there in 1939; he contributed to the latter until his death. Also active in education, Arciniegas served as Colombian minister of education (1941–42 and 1945–46) and taught at several…

University of Salamanca, state institution of higher learning at Salamanca, Spain. It was founded in 1218 under Alfonso IX, but its real beginnings date from 1254, when, under Alfonso X, grandson of the founder, three chairs in canon law and one each in grammar, arts, and physics were established.

Salamanca: …seminary (1617–1755) is now the Pontifical University, most of whose students are priests or seminarians; the Jesuits still officiate in its Church of La Clerecía. Also notable are the Italian-style church of the convent of the Augustinians (1636–87), containing a painting of the Immaculate Conception by José de Ribera; the…

Coimbra: …settled at Coimbra as the Universidade de Coimbra in 1537. Its chapel has a magnificently carved door (1517–22) and a richly decorated Baroque library (1716–23), which has 1,000,000 volumes and 3,000 manuscripts, among them a first edition of Luís de Camões’s epic Os Lusíadas (1572; “The Portuguese”). In the early…

Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa: …art; and the campus for Bocconi University (2019) in Milan, which includes a series of perforated-metal-clad buildings that surround a courtyard. The firm also renovated the historic La Samaritaine department store (2021), Paris, restoring some of the building’s Art Nouveau and Art Deco details and replacing parts of the facade…

University of Perugia, coeducational state institution of higher learning at Perugia, Italy. The university was founded in 1200 by a group of students seceding from the University of Bologna. It was recognized by Pope Clement V in 1308 as a studium generale, a place of study accepting scholars from

University of Salerno, institution of higher learning in Salerno, Italy. Much of the historic interest of the university derives from an antecedent medical school in Salerno that was the earliest and one of the greatest medical schools of the Middle Ages. In fact, some scholars have called this

University of Siena, coeducational autonomous state institution of higher learning at Siena, in central Italy. Like many other Italian universities, Siena was founded (1240) as a result of a 13th-century migration of students from the University of Bologna, which it emulated as a studium generale,

history of the Low Countries: Town opposition to the prince: …the Low Countries became a communitas (sometimes called corporatio or universitas)—a community that was legally a corporate body, could enter into alliances and ratify them with its own seal, could sometimes even make commercial or military contracts with other towns, and could negotiate directly with the prince. Land within the…

Hamburg: Education: The Universität Hamburg, founded in 1919, is one of the largest in Germany, with some 46,000 students and faculties covering virtually every discipline except certain technological subjects. A second university, the Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg, began classes in 1982. Hamburg also has state schools for music and…

University of Nantes, autonomous, state-financed coeducational institution of higher learning at Nantes, in western France. Founded in 1970 under the 1968 law reforming French higher education, the university replaced the former University of Nantes founded in 1962, which in turn had its origins in

University of Poitiers, coeducational, autonomous state institution of higher learning in Poitiers, Fr. Founded in 1970 under a law of 1968 reforming higher education, it replaced a university founded in 1431 by a Papal Bull of Eugene IV and confirmed by Charles VII in 1432. The university was

Laval University, a French-language university located on the outskirts of the city of Quebec. Laval’s predecessor institution, the Seminary of Quebec, considered the first Canadian institution of higher learning, was founded by François de Montmorency Laval, first Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec,

Lebanon: Education: …University of Beirut (1866), the Université Saint-Joseph (1875; subsidized by the French government and administered by the Jesuit order), the Lebanese University (Université Libanaise; 1951), and the Beirut Arab University (1960; an affiliate of the University of Alexandria).

Utrecht University, state-supported coeducational institution of higher learning founded in 1636 at Utrecht, in the Netherlands. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Utrecht attracted many foreign students, especially from England and Scotland. James Boswell, Samuel Johnson’s biographer, studied law at

University of Pretoria, state-supported coeducational institution of higher learning at Pretoria, South Africa. It was founded in 1908, when the arts and science courses of Transvaal University College in Johannesburg were transferred to Pretoria. In 1910 the two institutions were separated, the

Aix-Marseille University, coeducational, state-financed, autonomous institution of higher learning founded under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. The institution developed out of the original University of Provence, founded in 1409 as a studium generale by Louis II of

Universities of Bordeaux I, II, and III, coeducational, autonomous, state-financed institutions of higher learning at Bordeaux, France. The three universities were established in 1970 under the 1968 Orientation Act, reforming French education, to replace the original University of Bordeaux, which

Universities of Paris I–XIII, universities founded in 1970 under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, one of the archetypal European universities, founded about 1170. The medieval University of Paris grew out of the cathedral

Universities of Toulouse I, II, and III, three autonomous coeducational state institutions of higher learning founded at Toulouse, Fr., in 1970 under the 1968 law reforming higher education, to replace the former University of Toulouse founded in 1229: the University of Social Sciences,

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (PFUR), state institution of higher learning in Moscow, founded in 1960 as Peoples’ Friendship University “to give an education to people who had liberated themselves from colonialist oppression.” It was renamed Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University

Tevatron: Department of Energy by the Universities Research Association, a consortium of 85 research universities in the United States and four universities representing Canada, Italy, and Japan. The Tevatron was the world’s highest-energy particle accelerator until 2009, when it was supplanted by the Large Hadron Collider of the European Organization for…

Catholic Emancipation: With the Universities Tests Act of 1871, which opened the universities to Roman Catholics, Catholic Emancipation in the United Kingdom was virtually complete.

university, institution of higher education, usually comprising a college of liberal arts and sciences and graduate and professional schools and having the authority to confer degrees in various fields of study. A university differs from a college in that it is usually larger, has a broader

Myanmar: The emergence of nationalism: …a full university by the University Act. However, because the accompanying changes in the school’s administration and curriculum were viewed as elitist and exclusionary of the Burmese population, its students went on strike. Younger schoolchildren followed suit, and the general public and the Buddhist clergy gave full support to the…

university extension, division of an institution of higher learning that conducts educational activities for persons (usually adults) who are generally not full-time students. These activities are sometimes called extramural studies, continuing education, higher adult education, or university adult

Senegal: Education: …was changed in 1987 to University Cheikh Anta Diop to honour a Senegalese scholar and politician. Following disturbances in 1968, Senegal concluded an agreement with France that emphasized a more African-based curriculum. The College of Sciences and Veterinary Medicine for French-speaking Africa is also located in Dakar, and a polytechnic…

Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach: Early career in Italy and Austria.: …almost geometric forms of the Kollegienkirche (University Church) surmounted by the undulating forms of its towers crown the university complex, providing a new architectural and symbolic accent to a city dominated by its massive cathedral, as Salzburg had been. Fischer also designed a new facade for the archbishop’s stables and…

university college, in British and formerly British educational systems, an institution of higher learning that does not have the authority to award its own degrees. Students enrolled at a university college ordinarily receive their degrees from a recognized university—in England, usually the

University of Maryland: An adjacent campus, University College, provides education at more than 25 off-campus locations in the region and at more than 140 locations in 29 countries, including a four-year residential campus in Schwäbisch Gmünd, Ger. Also within the state system are the University of Maryland, Baltimore; Bowie State University;…

University of Oxford: History of Oxford University: The earliest of these colleges, University College, was founded in 1249. Balliol College was founded about 1263, and Merton College in 1264.

Dar es Salaam: Educational facilities include the University of Dar es Salaam (1961), several libraries and research institutes, and the National Museum. Dar es Salaam’s natural, nearly landlocked harbour is the outlet for most of mainland Tanzania’s agricultural and mineral exports and in addition serves the nearby land-locked countries of Uganda, Rwanda,…

Bristol: The contemporary city: The University of Bristol, founded as University College in 1876, was established in 1909.

Cork: It is now known as University College Cork–National University of Ireland, Cork. Cork also has an institute of technology (which is a training center for Ireland’s merchant navy and is the country’s only nautical college) that incorporates the former Regional Technical College, the Crawford College of Art & Design, and…

Cork: It is now known as University College Cork–National University of Ireland, Cork. Cork also has an institute of technology (which is a training center for Ireland’s merchant navy and is the country’s only nautical college) that incorporates the former Regional Technical College, the Crawford College of Art & Design, and…

Yvonne Farrell and Shelley McNamara: …of neighbouring buildings on the University College Dublin campus, the Spatial Dynamics Lab features unique applications of brick, concrete, and wood. Brick “fins” on one facade, for example, act as shades for a row of windows and create visual interest.

library: Training institutes: …library school was established in University College, London, in 1919, and until 1946 all other qualifications were gained through public examinations that were conducted by the Library Association. Today there are many other schools, most in polytechnic institutes, where the Library Association’s own standards continue to influence the curriculum. The…

university extension, division of an institution of higher learning that conducts educational activities for persons (usually adults) who are generally not full-time students. These activities are sometimes called extramural studies, continuing education, higher adult education, or university adult

research and development: University laboratories: In principle, university laboratories are completely independent and free to investigate anything that interests them. In practice, many of them are anxious to keep in touch with industry and to focus their research effort on problems with practical applications. Similarly, industrial scientists wish…

library: Other national collections: …library is combined with a university library.

Las Vegas: Municipal services and health: The University Medical Center of Southern Nevada, part of the University of Nevada system, is a teaching hospital with an emphasis on pulmonary and cardiac disease; it has grown to national prominence in neurosurgery and neurology and maintains the state’s major facility for treating burn victims.…

Bakke decision, ruling in which, on June 28, 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court declared affirmative action constitutional but invalidated the use of racial quotas. The medical school at the University of California, Davis, as part of the university’s affirmative action program, had reserved 16 percent

University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, a pioneer school in the progressive education movement in the United States. The original University Elementary School was founded in Chicago in 1896 by American educator John Dewey as a research and demonstration centre for the Department of Pedagogy at

Laboratory Schools of the University of Iowa, elementary and secondary schools founded in Iowa City in 1916 to experiment with curriculum development and to serve as model schools for Iowa. Over the next several decades the schools exercised national and international influence through their

Michigan Stadium, the home field of the University of Michigan’s gridiron football team, located in Ann Arbor. It was completed in 1927 but underwent numerous renovations and is currently the largest stadium in the United States and the third largest in the world, with a listed capacity of 107,601.

Oregon Health and Science University, public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Portland, Oregon, U.S. It is specifically dedicated to biomedical research and patient medical care and to training health professionals, scientists, and engineers. The university comprises schools of

Universities of Paris I–XIII, universities founded in 1970 under France’s 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. They replaced the former University of Paris, one of the archetypal European universities, founded about 1170. The medieval University of Paris grew out of the cathedral

Fiesta Bowl: …postseason football game held at State Farm Stadium (previously called University of Phoenix Stadium) in Glendale, Arizona, beginning in 2007, after having been played at Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona, for the first 35 years of its existence. It is one of six bowls (along with the Cotton Bowl,…

ProCon Debate: Should Public College Be Tuition-Free? ProCon Issue in the News: Texas resident undergraduate students whose families earn $100,000 or less will receive free college tuition and fees at schools in the University of Texas System. The program is an effort at “reducing debt and making a

Texas Tower shooting of 1966, mass shooting in Austin, Texas, on August 1, 1966, in which Charles Whitman, a student and ex-Marine, fired down from the clock tower on the campus of the University of Texas, killing 14 people and wounding 31 others (one of whom died years later from complications

history of publishing: University and government presses: The increase in the number of universities was accompanied by an increase in the number of university presses. The purpose of these presses is to serve the needs of scholarship—i.e., to publish specialized material that a purely commercial firm would find…

St. John Henry Newman: Association with the Oxford movement: …Tractarian doctrine of authority; the University Sermons (1843), similarly classical for the theory of religious belief; and above all his Parochial and Plain Sermons (1834–42), which in their published form took the principles of the movement, in their best expression, into the country at large.

social settlement: …Hall, established Neighborhood Guild, now University Settlement, on the Lower East Side of New York City in 1886. In Chicago in 1889, Jane Addams bought a residence on the West Side that came to be known as Hull House. In that same year the educator Jane E. Robbins and Jean…

university wits, the notable group of pioneer English dramatists who wrote during the last 15 years of the 16th century and who transformed the native interlude and chronicle play with their plays of quality and diversity. The university wits include Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, and Thomas

UFA, German motion-picture production company that made artistically outstanding and technically competent films during the silent era. Located in Berlin, its studios were the best equipped and most modern in the world. It encouraged experimentation and imaginative camera work and employed such

Henry Cisneros: …as president and CEO of Univision, a Spanish-language television network headquartered in Los Angeles. He moved back to San Antonio in 2000, and he spent the next decade on the boards of directors at construction and mortgage firms, including KB Home and Countrywide Financial. In those roles he was an…

UNIX, multiuser computer operating system. In the late 20th century UNIX was widely used for Internet servers, workstations, and mainframe computers. The main features of UNIX were its simplicity, portability (the ability to run on many different systems), multitasking and multiuser capabilities,

Roman law: Delict and contract: This notion of unjust enrichment as a source of legal obligation was one of the most pregnant contributions made by Roman law to legal thought.

fire-bellied toad: The common fire-bellied toad (B. bombina) is a pond dweller about 5 centimetres (2 inches) long. When disturbed it raises its forearms and arches its head and hind legs over its back. Resting on the lower part of its tautly curved abdomen, it freezes with the…

Unkei was a Japanese sculptor of the Late Heian (1086–1185) and early Kamakura (1192–1333) periods, who established a style of Buddhist sculpture that had an immense impact on Japanese art for centuries. Unkei’s father, Kōkei, was himself a famous sculptor. Unkei became a sculptor of merit before

Günter Grass: Other novels and fictional works: …environmental disaster; and Unkenrufe (1992; The Call of the Toad), which concerns the uneasy relationship between Poland and Germany.

Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, (July 8, 1833), defensive alliance signed between the Ottoman Empire and Russia at the village of Hünkâr İskelesi, near Istanbul, by which the Ottoman Empire became a virtual protectorate of Russia. Facing defeat by the insurgent Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha of Egypt, the Ottoman

Coventry Patmore: …best poetry is in The Unknown Eros, and Other Odes, containing mystical odes of divine love and of married love, which he saw as a reflection of Christ’s love for the soul.

Dardenne brothers: …movie, La Fille inconnue (2016; The Unknown Girl), centres on a young doctor who, after refusing to open her clinic’s door for a woman who is subsequently murdered, launches her own investigation into the crime. For Le Jeune Ahmed (2019; Young Ahmed), the brothers were named best director at Cannes.…

Errol Morris: Political and biographical documentaries: The Unknown Known (2013) consisted of a series of interviews with former U.S. secretary of defense Donald Rumsfeld regarding his political past, particularly his role in the Iraq War. In The B-Side (2016) Morris explored the life of portrait photographer Elsa Dorfman. American Dharma (2018)…

Joy Division/New Order: The group’s debut album, Unknown Pleasures (1979), was produced by Martin Hannett for Manchester’s Factory Records with a prescient ambience and sonic atmosphere that anticipated production conventions to come. It marked the viability of the independent bands and labels that had arisen in response to punk and made Joy…

Paris: The Triumphal Way: …Armistice Day in 1920, the Unknown Soldier was buried under the centre of the arch, and each evening the flame of remembrance is rekindled by a different patriotic group.

Finnish literature: Postwar poetry and prose: …whose novel Tuntemation sotilas (1954; The Unknown Soldier), a depiction of the War of Continuation, initially caused an uproar, only to become one of the most widely read novels in Finland. Its characters were for decades widely known by name in Finland, because they seemed to embody the archetypal qualities…

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, monumental grave of an unidentifiable military service member who died in wartime. Many countries now maintain such tombs to serve as memorials to all their war dead. The movement to set aside special tombs for unknown soldiers originated with World War I, a war in

Arlington National Cemetery: The cemetery also houses the Tomb of the Unknowns, also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, which was established in 1921 as the burial place for the Unknown Soldier of World War I. In 1932 a seven-piece Colorado-Yule marble sarcophagus, constructed at a cost of $48,000, was positioned…

Australian literature: Literature in the 21st century: Flanagan’s engaging mystery The Unknown Terrorist (2006) offers a cynical view of the world in the wake of the September 11, 2001, attacks, and his The Narrow Road to the Deep North (2013) was much praised for its brutally stark depiction of the life of a prisoner of…

Tomb of the Unknown Soldier: …Kingdom the grave of the Unknown Warrior was dedicated on November 11, 1920, the second anniversary of the armistice that ended the war. It is said that the idea for the tomb originated in 1916 with David Railton, an Anglican chaplain serving in France. He later contacted Herbert Ryle, the…

Arlington National Cemetery: The cemetery also houses the Tomb of the Unknowns, also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, which was established in 1921 as the burial place for the Unknown Soldier of World War I. In 1932 a seven-piece Colorado-Yule marble sarcophagus, constructed at a cost of $48,000, was positioned…

Sesshū was an artist of the Muromachi period, one of the greatest masters of the Japanese art of sumi-e, or monochrome ink painting. Sesshū adapted Chinese models to Japanese artistic ideals and aesthetic sensibilities. He painted landscapes, Zen Buddhist pictures, and screens decorated with

Sesshū: Legacy of Sesshū: …school of Japanese painting, the Unkoku school, devoted itself to continuing his artistic heritage.

Unkoku Tōgan was a Japanese painter best remembered as a suiboku-ga (“water-ink painting”) artist. He worked in the manner of the 15th-century artist Sesshū at a time when the orthodox style of the Kanō school dominated painting. Initially a student under a Kanō artist (probably Shōei), he became

United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency (UNKRA), economic-rehabilitation program (1950–58) established to aid South Korea in recovering from the disruption caused by the 1945 partition creating the two Korean republics. In addition to problems of economic reconstruction, much attention was

unlawful assembly, gathering of persons for the purpose of committing either a crime involving force or a noncriminal act in a manner likely to terrify the public. The extent to which a government penalizes disorderly assemblies often reflects the political value that it places on the right of

poker: Internet poker: Congress passed the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act (UIGEA) in October 2006, a law designed to prevent the passing of gambling revenue by poker sites on the Internet to terrorist organizations. In response, several online poker sites relocated their servers and operations outside the United States. On April…

hijacking, the illegal seizure of a land vehicle, aircraft, or other conveyance while it is in transit. Although since the late 20th century hijacking most frequently involved the seizure of an airplane and its forcible diversion to destinations chosen by the air pirates, when the term was coined

gabbro: …arbitrary division between layered and unlayered gabbro complexes. The lower part of this mass has the average composition of an olivine gabbro but is strongly banded, with individual bands that vary in composition from anorthosite to peridotite (monomineralic rocks that contain labradorite and olivine). The upper portion is a comparatively…

petroleum refining: Octane rating: Since the advent of unleaded fuels in the mid-1970s, however, motor octane measurements have frequently been found to limit actual engine performance. As a result a new measurement, road octane number, which is a simple average of the research and motor values, is most frequently used to define fuel…

memory: Interference: …the second; this is called unlearning. If one is asked to recall from both lists combined, first-list items are less likely to be remembered than if the second list had not been learned. Learning the second list seems to act backward in time (retroactively) to destroy some memory of the…

Passover, in Judaism, holiday commemorating the Hebrews’ liberation from slavery in Egypt and the “passing over” of the forces of destruction, or the sparing of the firstborn of the Israelites, when the Lord “smote the land of Egypt” on the eve of the Exodus. Passover begins with the 15th and ends

Canadian literature: Fiction: …and textual strategies, while in Unless (2002) a middle-aged professional woman confronts the nature of goodness and the disintegration of a comfortable family life. Audrey Thomas reveals the dilemmas confronting women in innovative short stories (Real Mothers [1981]) and novels (Intertidal Life, 1984; Graven Images, 1993; Isobel Gunn, 1999). Jack…

Uganda: Tyranny under Amin: …former exiles, calling itself the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), with a former leading figure in the DP, Yusufu Lule, as president, took office in April 1979. Because of disagreement over economic strategy and the fear that Lule was promoting the interests of his own Ganda people, he was replaced…

over-the-counter market, trading in stocks and bonds that does not take place on stock exchanges. It is most significant in the United States, where requirements for listing stocks on the exchanges are quite strict. It is often called the “off-board market” and sometimes the “unlisted market,”