Maipo Volcano, volcanic peak in the Central Andes Mountains of South America. It rises to an elevation of 17,270 feet (5,264 metres) on the Chile-Argentina border, 65 miles (105 km) southeast of Santiago, Chile. It is one of the most active of the border volcanoes. An eruption in 1826 resulted in

Misti Volcano, volcano of the Andes mountains of southern Peru. It is flanked by Chachani and Pichupichu volcanoes and rises to 19,098 feet (5,821 meters) above sea level, towering over the city of Arequipa. Its perfect, snowcapped cone is thought to have had religious significance for the Incas

Muhavura, extinct volcano at the easternmost end of the Virunga Mountains in east central Africa. It lies northeast of Lake Kivu on the border between Uganda and Rwanda. It is more than 13,500 ft high, and its crater contains a lake. The volcano forms part of the Virunga National Park, which is the

Sabinio, extinct volcano (11,500 feet [3,505 m]) in the Virunga Mountains of east-central Africa. It lies northeast of Lake Kivu and south-southeast of Rutshuru, Congo (Kinshasa). Its summit marks the junction of the Congo (Kinshasa)–Rwanda–Uganda borders. It forms part of the Virunga National

Sabinio, extinct volcano (11,500 feet [3,505 m]) in the Virunga Mountains of east-central Africa. It lies northeast of Lake Kivu and south-southeast of Rutshuru, Congo (Kinshasa). Its summit marks the junction of the Congo (Kinshasa)–Rwanda–Uganda borders. It forms part of the Virunga National

Santa Ana Volcano, mountain peak in southwestern El Salvador. The highest peak in the country, it rises to 7,749 feet (2,362 meters). The volcano has been active since the 16th century and last erupted in 2005, its first eruption in more than 100 years. It has a small sulfurous lake in its crater.

Tajumulco Volcano, mountain peak in southwestern Guatemala. The highest peak in Central America, Tajumulco rises essentially from sea level to an elevation of 13,845 feet (4,220 metres). The peak is part of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, a mountain range that extends into Guatemala from Chiapas state

Réunion: Land: …extreme east is the mountain Le Volcan, one of whose craters, Piton de la Fournaise, has been active several times since 1925. Réunion’s coast has no good natural harbours.

Vulcan: His chief festival, the Volcanalia, was held on August 23 and was marked by a rite of unknown significance: the heads of Roman families threw small fish into the fire. Vulcan was invoked to avert fires, as his epithets Quietus and Mulciber (Fire Allayer) suggest. Because he was a…

volcanism, any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles. Although volcanism is best known on Earth, there is evidence that it has been important in the

plate tectonics: Island arcs: …overriding plate, known as a volcanic arc, typically a few hundred kilometres behind the oceanic trench. The distance between the trench and the arc, known as the arc-trench gap, depends on the angle of subduction. Steeper subduction zones have relatively narrow arc-trench gaps. A basin may form within this region,…

sedimentary rock: Lithic arenites: …the rock is termed a volcanic arenite. If chert and carbonate rock fragments are predominant, the name chert or calclithite is applied.

Andisol: …the single property of having volcanic-ash parent material. Although these soils exist in all climatic regions, they account for less than 0.75 percent of all the nonpolar continental land area on Earth. Approximately reproducing the geographic distribution of volcanoes, they are found along the circum-Pacific “Ring of Fire” (from the…

volcano: Secondary damage: …of a network of nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs) managed by the International Civil Aviation Organization, helps aviation officials divert air traffic around areas of dangerous ash concentrations. A few weeks after the start of the eruption of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull volcano in March 2010, ash plume data gathered from…

agglomerate: …sort agglomerates into either bombs, blocks, or breccia. Bombs and blocks are generally larger than 32 mm (1.25 inches) in size; although bombs are ejected in a molten state (becoming rounded upon solidification), blocks are erupted as solid angular or subangular fragments. Upon accumulation, blocks form breccia, which are solid…

bomb, in volcanism, unconsolidated volcanic material that has a diameter greater than 64 mm (2.5 inches) and forms from clots of wholly or partly molten lava ejected during a volcanic eruption, partly solidifying during flight. The final shape is determined by the initial size, viscosity, and

agglomerate: Upon accumulation, blocks form breccia, which are solid angular fragments larger than 64 mm.

lava cave, cave or cavity formed as a result of surface solidification of a lava flow during the last stages of its activity. A frozen crust may form over still mobile and actively flowing liquid rock as a result of surface cooling. A dwindling supply of lava may then cause the molten material to

mountain: Geomorphic characteristics: Chains of active volcanoes, such as those occurring at island arcs, are commonly marked by individual high mountains separated by large expanses of low and gentle topography. In some chains, namely those associated with “hot spots” (see below), only the volcanoes at one end of…

Venus: Volcanic features: Enormous numbers of small volcanic cones are distributed throughout the plains. Particularly unusual in appearance are so-called pancake domes, which are typically a few tens of kilometres in diameter and about 1 km (0.6 mile) high and are remarkably circular in shape. Flat-topped and steep-sided, they appear to have…

volcanic dome, any steep-sided mound that is formed when lava reaching the Earth’s surface is so viscous that it cannot flow away readily and accumulates around the vent. Sometimes domes are produced by repeated outpourings of short flows from a summit vent, and, occasionally, extremely viscous

volcano: Explosions: Volcanic dust is the finest, usually about the consistency of flour. Volcanic ash is also fine but more gritty, with particles up to the size of grains of rice. Cinders, sometimes called scoriae, are the next in size; these coarse fragments can range from 2…

earthquake: Volcanism: …activity and is called a volcanic earthquake. Yet it is likely that even in such cases the disturbance is the result of a sudden slip of rock masses adjacent to the volcano and the consequent release of elastic strain energy. The stored energy, however, may in part be of hydrodynamic…

volcanic eruption, an eruption of molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases through a volcano, which is a vent in a planet’s or satellite’s crust. Volcanic eruptions can cause disastrous loss of life and property. They range from relatively gentle eruptions, as typically seen in Hawaiian

volcano: Explosions: Massive volcanic explosions are caused by the rapid expansion of gases, which in turn can be triggered by the sudden depressurization of a shallow hydrothermal system or gas-charged magma body or by the rapid mixing of magma with groundwater. The ash, cinders, hot fragments,…

volcano: Volcanic fields: Such areas have many geologically young cinder cones or other features that have not been individually identified as separate volcanoes. If the conduits through which magma ascends to the surface are scattered over a broad area, many short-lived volcanoes are formed rather than…

atmosphere: Current volcanic gaseous emissions include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide (CO), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), and diatomic nitrogen (N2; consisting of two atoms in a single

volcano: Gas clouds: Even beyond the limit of explosive destruction, the hot, ash-laden gas clouds associated with an explosive eruption can scorch vegetation and kill animals and people by suffocation. Gas clouds emitted from fumaroles (volcanic gas vents) or from the sudden overturn of a crater…

volcanic glass, any glassy rock formed from lava or magma that has a chemical composition close to that of granite (quartz plus alkali feldspar). Such molten material may reach very low temperatures without crystallizing, but its viscosity may become very high. Because high viscosity inhibits

Atlantic Ocean: Islands of the Atlantic Ocean: Among purely oceanic islands (i.e., those without any foundation of continental rock, usually formed as the result of volcanic action) are Iceland, the Azores, Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha, Bouvet, and Gough, which all rise from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; and the Canary,

lake: Basins formed by tectonism, volcanism, and landslides: Basins formed from volcanic activity are also greatly varied in type. The emanation of volcanic material from beneath the surface can be explosive, or it can issue in a gentle and regular manner. This range of activity and the variation of types of material which may be involved…

volcano: Volcanic landforms: The common mental image of a volcano is that of a steep symmetrical cone sweeping upward in a concave curve to a sharp summit peak. Mount Fuji in Japan is the archetype of this image, but in reality only a few…

igneous rock: Intrusive igneous rocks: …shallow intrusive bodies such as volcanic necks and diatremes (see Figure 6). A volcanic neck is the “throat” of a volcano and consists of a pipelike conduit filled with hypabyssal rocks. Ship Rock in New Mexico and Devil’s Tower in Wyoming are remnants of volcanic necks, which were exposed after…

Bay of Plenty: …to include much of the Volcanic Plateau that is the heart of North Island’s thermal belt.

Oliver Fisher Winchester: … and ammunition who made the Winchester Repeating Arms Company a worldwide success by the shrewd purchase and improvement of the patented designs of other arms designers.

extrusive rock, any rock derived from magma (molten silicate material) that was poured out or ejected at Earth’s surface. By contrast, intrusive rocks are formed from magma that was forced into older rocks at depth within Earth’s crust; the molten material then slowly solidifies below Earth’s

mass movement: …steep-walled depression, known as a volcanic sink, formed following the withdrawal of magma from below the ground surface.

igneous rock: Intrusive igneous rocks: …shallow intrusive bodies such as volcanic necks and diatremes (see Figure 6). A volcanic neck is the “throat” of a volcano and consists of a pipelike conduit filled with hypabyssal rocks. Ship Rock in New Mexico and Devil’s Tower in Wyoming are remnants of volcanic necks, which were exposed after…

volcanic winter, cooling at Earth’s surface resulting from the deposition of massive amounts of volcanic ash and sulfur aerosols in the stratosphere. Sulfur aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation and absorb terrestrial radiation. Together these processes cool the troposphere below. If sulfur

pozzolana, hydraulic cement perfected by the Romans and still used in some countries, traditionally made by grinding a material of volcanic origin (the pozzolan) with powdered hydrated lime. Roman engineers used two parts by weight of pozzolan mixed with one part of lime to give strength to mortar

Costa Rica: Relief: …are, in the north, the Cordillera Volcánica, noted for its volcanic activity, as the name implies, and, in the south, the Cordillera de Talamanca. The Cordillera Volcánica may be divided into three ranges, from northwest to southeast: the Cordillera de Guanacaste, the Cordillera de Tilarán, and the Cordillera Central. Designated…

volcanism, any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles. Although volcanism is best known on Earth, there is evidence that it has been important in the

volcano, vent in the crust of Earth or another planet or satellite, from which issue eruptions of molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases. A volcanic eruption is an awesome display of Earth’s power. Yet, while eruptions are spectacular to watch, they can cause disastrous loss of life and

Épi, island of Vanuatu, in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It is volcanic in origin and is 27 miles (43 km) long and 11 miles (18 km) wide, with an area of 171 square miles (444 square km). It rises to 2,733 feet (833 metres). Although Épi is fertile, its copra plantations have deteriorated through

volcano: Volcano forecasting and warning: The greatest hazard at potentially active volcanoes is human complacency. The physical hazards can be reliably estimated by studying past eruptive activity as recorded in history or in the prehistoric deposits around a volcano. Volcano observatories can monitor local earthquake activity…

Taal Lake: Within the lake rises Volcano Island (984 feet [300 metres]), which itself contains another small crater (Yellow Lake). Volcano Island, called Taal Volcano, has erupted more than 34 times since 1572, most recently in 2020.

Volcano Islands, archipelago, Tokyo to (metropolis), far southern Japan. The islands lie in the western Pacific between the Bonin Islands (north) and the Mariana Islands (south). The three small volcanic islands are, in north–south sequence, Kita-Iō (San Alexander) Island, Iō Island (Iō-tō;

Susan Sontag: …also wrote the historical novels The Volcano Lover: A Romance (1992) and In America (2000).

rabbit: Diversity and conservation status: The volcano rabbit, or zacatuche, inhabits dense undergrowth of bunchgrass in pine forests in the high mountains surrounding Mexico City. A population of only about 6,000 remains in fragments of habitat. The pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis) is closely related to the cottontails and occupies mature sagebrush…

mud volcano, mound of mud heaved up through overlying sediments. The craters are usually shallow and may intermittently erupt mud. These eruptions continuously rebuild the cones, which are eroded relatively easily. Some mud volcanoes are created by hot-spring activity where large amounts of gas and

caldera: …therefore are referred to as volcano-tectonic depressions. Their collapse also appears to be at least partly related to the rapid extrusion of large amounts of lava. Examples are the Rotorua-Taupo Basin in New Zealand and the basin of Lake Toba in Sumatra.

volcano, vent in the crust of Earth or another planet or satellite, from which issue eruptions of molten rock, hot rock fragments, and hot gases. A volcanic eruption is an awesome display of Earth’s power. Yet, while eruptions are spectacular to watch, they can cause disastrous loss of life and

mineral deposit: Volcanogenic massive sulfides: Wherever volcanism occurs beneath the sea, the potential exists for seawater to penetrate the volcanic rocks, become heated by a magma chamber, and react with the enclosing rocks—in the process concentrating geochemically scarce metals and so forming a hydrothermal solution. When such…

volcanology, discipline of the geologic sciences that is concerned with all aspects of volcanic phenomena. Volcanology deals with the formation, distribution, and classification of volcanoes as well as with their structure and the kinds of materials ejected during an eruption (such as pyroclastic

Volkhov River, river, northwestern Russia. It is the major outlet for Lake Ilmen, whence it flows past Novgorod and directly north-northeast into Lake Ladoga across a level, swampy basin. The river is 139 miles (224 km) long and drains a basin of 31,000 square miles (80,200 square km). It is frozen

Paul Volcker was an American economist and banker who, as chairman of the board of governors of the U.S. Federal Reserve System (1979–87), played a key role in the economic program of President Ronald Reagan (1981–89), which became known as Reaganomics, and in stabilizing the American economy

Paul Volcker was an American economist and banker who, as chairman of the board of governors of the U.S. Federal Reserve System (1979–87), played a key role in the economic program of President Ronald Reagan (1981–89), which became known as Reaganomics, and in stabilizing the American economy

Harry Potter: Series summary: …by an evil wizard named Voldemort. Harry was the only person to have ever survived an attack by Voldemort—by somehow rebounding the latter’s “killing curse”—which left him with a lightning-bolt-shaped scar on his forehead. Indeed, Harry’s mysterious survival had all but killed Voldemort, who was left disembodied, and the young…

vole, any of numerous species of small-bodied mouselike rodents of the Northern Hemisphere that are classified, along with lemmings, in the subfamily Arvicolinae of the family Cricetidae. The number of vole species, however, varies by classification, with some taxonomies identifying roughly 70

Volendam, town, Edam-Volendam gemeente (municipality), northwestern Netherlands, on Lake IJssel. Its harbour was sealed off as part of an inland lake (see IJsselmeer Polders), and the town’s once-flourishing fishing industry has subsequently declined. Tourism is now the principal economic factor.

Louis Malle: …major film, Le Voleur (1967; The Thief of Paris), a gentleman is driven to become a thief out of hatred of himself and his bourgeois origins. Malle’s other films of the 1960s included the zany comedy Zazie dans le métro (1960) and the musical satire Viva Maria! (1965).

Leonid Leonidov was a Russian actor, director, and teacher who represented in his work and teachings the precepts of Konstantin Stanislavsky. Leonidov studied at the Moscow Imperial Theatrical School and worked as an actor in Kiev, Odessa, and at Moscow’s Korsh Theatre before joining the Moscow Art

Turkic languages: Literary languages: …regional written languages: Khwārezmian Turkic, Volga Bolgarian, Old Kipchak, Old Ottoman, and Early Chagatai. Khwārezmian, used in the 13th–14th centuries in the empire of the Golden Horde, is based on the old language, but mixed with Oghuz and Kipchak elements. Volga Bolgarian is preserved in inscriptions on tombstones (13th–14th centuries).…

Cossack: …the middle Ural River), the Volga, the Dnieper, and the Zaporozhian (mainly west of the Dnieper).

Finno-Ugric religion: The Finno-Ugric peoples: …south, the differentiation of the Volga Finns into separate groups probably began about 1200 bce. The Volga Finns consist today of the Mordvins (including the Moksha in the southeast and the Erzya in the northwest), living in a rather large region near the middle reaches of the Volga River, and…

Russia: The Russian Plain: …Don rivers, beyond which the Volga Hills rise gently to 1,230 feet (375 metres) before descending abruptly to the Volga River. Small river valleys are sharply incised into these uplands, whereas the major rivers cross the lowlands in broad, shallow floodplains. East of the Volga is the large Caspian Depression,…

Curzio Malaparte: …Volga nasce in Europa (1943; The Volga Rises in Europe). He then acquired an international reputation with two passionately written, brilliantly realistic war novels: Kaputt (1944); and La pelle (1949; The Skin), a terrifying, surrealistically presented series of episodes showing the suffering and degradation that the war had brought to…

Volga River, river of Europe, the continent’s longest, and the principal waterway of western Russia and the historic cradle of the Russian state. Its basin, sprawling across about two-fifths of the European part of Russia, contains almost half of the entire population of the Russian Republic. The

Volga-Baltic Waterway, system of rivers and a canal in western Russia linking the Volga River with the Baltic Sea. The Volga-Baltic Waterway connects with the White Sea–Baltic Canal at Lake Onega. The total length of the waterway is about 1,100 km (685 miles). The first link between the Volga and

Volga-Don Canal, canal linking the lower Volga River with the Don River at their closest point in southwestern Russia. The canal runs from Kalach-na-Donu, on the eastern shore of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir, for 101 km (63 miles) to Krasnoarmeysk on the Volga immediately south of Volgograd. There are

Finno-Ugric languages: …classified together as the Volga-Finnic group of languages. Also, because the dialects of Sami are almost mutually unintelligible, they are often classified as separate languages.

Turkic languages: Classification: The North Kipchak group (NWn) consists of Tatar (Tatarstan, Russia; China; Romania; Bulgaria; and so on), Bashkir (Bashkortostan, Russia), and West Siberian dialects (Tepter, Tobol, Irtysh, and so on). The West Kipchak group (NWw) today consists of small, partly endangered languages, Kumyk (Dagestan), Karachay and Balkar…

Volga-Ural Petroleum and Gas Province, principal petroleum-producing region of Russia. Situated in the southern part of European Russia, it stretches from the west flank of the Ural Mountains to west of the Volga River. The largest fields are in Bashkortostan and Tatarstan and near Samara (Syzran

Volga-Don Canal, canal linking the lower Volga River with the Don River at their closest point in southwestern Russia. The canal runs from Kalach-na-Donu, on the eastern shore of the Tsimlyansk Reservoir, for 101 km (63 miles) to Krasnoarmeysk on the Volga immediately south of Volgograd. There are

Volga-Ural Petroleum and Gas Province, principal petroleum-producing region of Russia. Situated in the southern part of European Russia, it stretches from the west flank of the Ural Mountains to west of the Volga River. The largest fields are in Bashkortostan and Tatarstan and near Samara (Syzran

Volgograd, oblast (region), southwestern Russia, lying athwart the lower Volga and Don rivers. The Volga is flanked on the west by the Volga Upland, which is continued south of Volgograd as the Yergeni Upland. West of the Khoper and Don are additional low uplands. Between the uplands and also east

Volgograd, city and administrative centre of Volgograd oblast (region), southwestern Russia, on the Volga River. It was founded as the fortress of Tsaritsyn in 1589 to protect newly acquired Russian territory along the Volga. During the Russian Civil War (1918–20), Joseph Stalin organized the

Volsk, city, Saratov oblast (region), western Russia. The city lies along the Volga River opposite its confluence with the Bolshoy (Great) Irgiz. Originating as the small settlement of Malykovka, it was made a town in 1780, first called Volgsk, later Volsk. Since the October Revolution (1917),

Volhynia, area of northwestern Ukraine that was a principality (10th–14th century) and then an autonomous component of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and was ruled largely by its own aristocracy (after the late 14th century). The region became prominent during the 12th century, when many emigrants

Volyn-Podilsk Upland, plateau extending between the Dniester and upper Bug river valleys in the west and the Dnieper River in the east in western Ukraine. In the north, where it is bordered by an escarpment, the plateau reaches to a line between the cities of Zhytomyr, Kremenets, and Lviv, while in

Christian Catholic Church: …and he was succeeded by Wilbur Glenn Voliva. The church remained strong in Zion, but the city eventually welcomed other businesses and churches.

circus: Acts of skill: high-wire act of the Russian Voljansky troupe, the wire changed from being horizontal to being at an oblique angle, while the tension was maintained. Another unique act, the Koch sisters, performed on a giant semaphore arm that revolved slowly as they balanced on the outside edge. In the late 20th…

Adolf Hitler: Rise to power of Adolf Hitler: …unit of mankind was the Volk (“the people”), of which the German people was the greatest. Moreover, he believed that the state existed to serve the Volk—a mission that to him the Weimar German Republic betrayed. All morality and truth were judged by this criterion: whether it was in accordance…

Hans Grimm: His novel Volk ohne Raum (1926; “Nation Without Space”), in which he contrasts the wide-open spaces of South Africa with Germany’s cramped position in Europe, deals with the German settlers in South West Africa, their involvement in the South African War, and their determination to retain their…

Het Vrije Volk, former daily evening socialist newspaper, once one of the largest and most influential dailies in the Netherlands. It was established in 1900 as Het Volk (“The People”), the official organ of the Socialist Democratic Labour Party. During the German occupation of the Netherlands in

Kantianism: Metaphysical Neo-Kantianism: The Romanticist Johannes Volkelt, in turn, took up the theme of a critical metaphysics and expressed his persisting aspirations toward the Absolute in the claim that, beyond the certainties of subjective consciousness, there exists a new kind of certainty in a transsubjective realm. Subjectivity is, thus, inevitably…

puppetry: Styles of puppet theatre: …revival was largely inspired by Ellen Van Volkenburg at the Chicago Little Theatre with productions that included A Midsummer Night’s Dream in 1916. She later directed plays for Tony Sarg, who became the most important influence in American puppetry, with such large-scale marionette plays as Rip Van Winkle, The Rose…

anthropology: Anthropology in Europe: …been made between Volkskunde and Völkerkunde, and, although these terms may now be somewhat outdated, they express the traditional divide clearly. One discipline was devoted to “the people”; it centred on national cultural traditions, particularly those of the peasantry, and could be seen, in its origins, as a scholarly wing…

Diedrich Westermann: …which was Part 2 of Völkerkunde von Afrika (1940; “Ethnology of Africa”). This major classification of African languages established three major divisions: the Khoisan languages, the Negro languages (including the Sudan, Bantu, and Nilotic), and the Hamito-Semitic languages (since reorganized and now called Afro-Asiatic). In this work, his method was…

folk psychology, ways of conceptualizing mind and the mental that are implicit in ordinary, everyday attributions of mental states to oneself and others. Philosophers have adopted different positions about the extent to which folk psychology and its generalizations (e.g., those portraying human

West Germanic languages: History: …century the great migrations (German Völkerwanderung) of Germanic tribes resulted in an expansion of the Germanic-speaking territory. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes crossed the Channel to England; Franks moved southwest into northern France and southwestern central Germany; and Alemanni, Bavarians, and Langobardi moved south into southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and northern…

Volkhov River, river, northwestern Russia. It is the major outlet for Lake Ilmen, whence it flows past Novgorod and directly north-northeast into Lake Ladoga across a level, swampy basin. The river is 139 miles (224 km) long and drains a basin of 31,000 square miles (80,200 square km). It is frozen

Völkischer Beobachter, (German: “People’s Observer”), daily newspaper published by the Nazi Party in Germany from the 1920s until the fall of the Third Reich in 1945. The paper was originally founded in 1887 as a four-page Munich weekly, the Münchner Beobachter. It had become a daily anti-Semitic

osteon: …of the cortex, are called Volkmann canals; Volkmann canals connect adjacent osteons and also connect the blood vessels of the Haversian canals with the periosteum, the tissue covering the bone’s outer surface.

Volkmann contracture, disorder of the wrist and hand in which the hand and fingers become fixed in a characteristic bent position. The disorder may be caused by the pressure of bandages, a tourniquet, or splints after a fracture; it may also be caused by a severe injury in the region of the elbow.

clay mineral: Smectite: …and chromium species are called volkonskoite. The ideal structural formula of trioctahedral ferromagnesian smectites, the series saponite through iron saponite, is given by (Mg, Fe2+)3(Si4 - xAlx)O10(OH)2M + x · nH2O. The tetrahedral substitution is responsible for the net charge deficiency in the smectite minerals of

Aleksandr Volkov is a Russian pilot and cosmonaut, the first cosmonaut whose son also went into space. Volkov graduated from the Chuguyev Higher Air Force School in Kharkov province in Ukraine, U.S.S.R., in 1970. After graduation from the air force school, Volkov served as a test pilot in the

Aleksandr Volkov is a Russian pilot and cosmonaut, the first cosmonaut whose son also went into space. Volkov graduated from the Chuguyev Higher Air Force School in Kharkov province in Ukraine, U.S.S.R., in 1970. After graduation from the air force school, Volkov served as a test pilot in the

Sergey Volkov is a Russian military pilot and cosmonaut—the first second-generation cosmonaut, following his father, Aleksandr Volkov, into space. Volkov graduated from the Tambov Marina Raskova Air Force Academy for Pilots in Tambov, Russia, with a piloting and engineering degree in 1995. After

Sergey Volkov is a Russian military pilot and cosmonaut—the first second-generation cosmonaut, following his father, Aleksandr Volkov, into space. Volkov graduated from the Tambov Marina Raskova Air Force Academy for Pilots in Tambov, Russia, with a piloting and engineering degree in 1995. After