Industrial Revolution Key Facts

Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

The term Industrial Revolution refers to the process of change in modern history from a farming and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. The process began in Britain, where the Industrial Revolution was largely confined from the 1760s to the 1830s. From Britain the revolution spread gradually throughout Europe and to the United States and other parts of the world.

The most important of the changes that brought about the Industrial Revolution were (1) the invention of machines to do the work of hand tools, (2) the use of steam and later of other kinds of power, and (3) the adoption of the factory system.

The machines that ushered in the Industrial Revolution were mostly invented in the last third of the 18th century. Earlier in the century, however, a few inventions had been made that opened the way for the later machines. One was the crude, slow-moving steam engine built by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Another was John Kay’s flying shuttle (1733), which enabled one person to handle a wide loom more rapidly than two persons could operate it before.

spinning jenny
© Photos.com/Getty Images

As the flying shuttle sped up weaving, the demand for cotton yarn increased. Many inventors set to work to improve the spinning wheel. By 1770 James Hargreaves, a weaver, had patented his spinning jenny, the first practical application of multiple spinning by a machine.

James Watt's steam engine: The power behind the industrial revolutionLearn about James Watt's steam engine.
Contunico © ZDF Studios GmbH, Mainz; Thumbnail James Watt. Etching by J. Scott, 1869, after J. E. Lauder. Wellcome Collection, London (Public domain)

While textile machinery was developing, progress was being made in other directions. In the 1760s James Watt, a Scottish mechanic, made major improvements on the inefficient Newcomen steam engine. Watt was given a patent for his steam engine in 1769. The Watt engine was later utilized in various types of mills as well as distilleries and waterworks.

Technological changes during the Industrial Revolution also included the wide use of basic materials, such as iron and steel. Electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine also emerged as new energy sources.

Industrialization led to a new organization of work known as the factory system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of function.

*Clermont*Robert Fulton's first steamboat, later called the *Clermont*, makes its first voyage, from New York, New York, to Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, in 1807.
Prints and Photographs Division/Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (LC-USZ62-1342)

Important developments in transportation and communications occurred, including the steam locomotive, steamboat, automobile, airplane, electric telegraph, radio, and telephone.

Technological changes tremendously increased the use of natural resources. With the spread of industrialization in empire-building countries, overseas colonies were exploited for their raw materials and became markets for manufactured products.

There were also many new developments in nonindustrial spheres. Agricultural improvements, for instance, made possible the provision of food for a larger nonagricultural population.

Economic changes resulted in a wider distribution of wealth, the decline of land as a source of wealth in the face of rising industrial production, and increased international trade.

Sweeping social changes occurred, including the growth of cities and the development of working-class movements. Urban areas grew rapidly as rural populations flocked to the cities for work. For millions of laborers, industrialization often meant substandard wages and working conditions. Workers periodically went on strike to force owners to meet their demands for better conditions.

Other countries lagged behind Britain in industrializing, but once Germany, the United States, and Japan achieved industrial power, they outstripped Britain’s initial successes. Eastern European counties lagged into the 20th century, and not until the mid-20th century did the Industrial Revolution spread to such countries as China and India.

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Industrial Revolution | Timeline

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