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Young boys working in a thread spinning mill in Macon, Georgia, 1909. Boys are so small they have to climb onto the spinning frame to reach and fix broken threads and put back empty bobbins. Child labor. Industrial revolution

The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution

A Factory Interior, watercolor, pen and gray ink, graphite, and white goache on wove paper by unknown artist, c. 1871-91; in the Yale Center for British Art. Industrial Revolution England

Inventors and Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

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Inventors and Inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution Timeline

Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

1760s

James Watt's steam engineJames Watt's engine displaced Thomas Newcomen's slow, clumsy steam pumping engine. Watt's engine featured a flywheel, crank, and steam regulator.
British Crown copyright, Science Museum, London

The Industrial Revolution begins in Great Britain. About 1764 James Hargreaves conceives the idea for a yarn-spinning machine called the spinning jenny (which he patents in 1770). Another influential innovation is James Watt’s steam engine. In 1764, while repairing a Newcomen steam engine, Watt notices that it wastes a lot of steam. Watt develops a way to improve the Newcomen machine and in 1769 receives a patent for his own steam engine, which will be widely utilized during the Industrial Revolution.

1770s

spinning muleSamuel Crompton invented the spinning mule, a machine used to spin cotton and other fibers, in 1779. It was improved by Richard Roberts, who patented an automatic mule in 1825.
Universal History Archive—UIG/Shutterstock.com

Richard Arkwright is the first to use Watt’s steam engine to power textile machinery. By 1775 Arkwright develops mills in which the whole process of yarn manufacture is carried on by one machine. (Arkwright is later recognized as the father of the modern industrial factory system.) In 1779 Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule, a cross between machines invented by Arkwright and Hargreaves. The spinning mule permits large-scale manufacture of high-quality thread and yarn.

1780s

Edmund Cartwright invents a crude power loom, first patented in 1785. This is the predecessor of the modern power loom. That year Cartwright sets up a weaving and spinning factory in Doncaster, Yorkshire, England. In 1789 he patents the first wool-combing machine.

1793

Samuel Slater, a former apprentice to Jedediah Strutt (partner of Arkwright), constructs versions of Arkwright’s machinery and establishes a cotton mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first successful cotton mill in the United States. Meanwhile, in Georgia, Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin, a machine for cleaning cotton of its seeds. Whitney later develops the concept of mass production of interchangeable parts.

c. 1807

Two Englishmen, William and John Cockerill, bring the Industrial Revolution to Belgium by developing machine shops at Liège. Belgium will become the first country in continental Europe to be transformed economically.

1811–13

Social opposition to industrialization begins to arise. Luddites, people opposed to industrialization, attack factories in a number of towns across Great Britain, destroying textile machinery, which is displacing them. The textile craftsmen who participate in these attacks generally eschew violence against persons and often enjoy the support of locals in these areas. (The term Luddite is now used broadly to signify individuals or groups opposed to technological change.)

1834–59

sewing machineLockstitch sewing machine invented by Elias Howe, c. 1846.
© Photos.com/Getty Images

In the United States Cyrus McCormick invents several machines used to mechanize farming. His mechanical reaper, patented in 1834, revolutionizes harvesting, making it quicker and easier. Elias Howe’s sewing machine, patented in 1846, makes the manufacture of clothing less expensive. In 1859 Edwin Drake completes the drilling of the first productive oil well in the United States, near Titusville, Pennsylvania.

1862–69

The United States begins building a transcontinental railroad in 1862 to connect the East Coast with the West Coast. Work progresses from both sides of the country, meeting at Promontory, Utah, in 1869.

1876

Alexander Graham Bell patents his telephone. Networks of telephone lines are built quickly across the United States.

1879–82

In 1879 Thomas Edison introduces the modern age of light when he invents the incandescent lightbulb. He later supervises the installation of the world’s first permanent commercial central power system, in lower Manhattan, New York. The system becomes operative in 1882. Electricity is later applied to driving all kinds of machinery. Electric lighting quickly spreads across the United States and is soon adopted in Europe.

1903

At Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, aviation pioneers Orville and Wilbur Wright achieve the first powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight.

Late 19th and 20th centuries

Tour the stages of Ford Motor Company's assembly lines producing the coupe, runabout, and Tudor sedanMass production of the Ford Model T. By bringing parts to the assembly line on a conveyor system and by limiting assembly workers to simple, repetitive tasks, the Ford Motor Company was able to produce thousands of Model T's a day. This film clip from the mid-1920s shows the coupe, the runabout, and the Tudor sedan rolling out of the assembly plant.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

There is mounting evidence of what has been called a second Industrial Revolution (despite overlap with the first). Many new products are devised, and important advances are made in the system of mass production. In 1913, for instance, Henry Ford introduces assembly-line methods in the manufacture of his Model T Ford. Parts are assembled on a moving conveyor belt, and the Model T takes shape as it moves from one work station to the next. The assembly line greatly increases the speed of manufacture and soon is used in many industries. Developments in machines, tools, and computers later give rise to the automatic factory.

Industrial Revolution Key Facts

Industrial Revolution | Key Facts

Industrial Revolution Causes and Effects

Industrial Revolution | Causes & Effects