Projection techniques

A 35-mm exhibition print is furnished to the theater mounted on 2,000-foot (22-minute) reels. Thus, a typical feature film consists of five or six reels. For decades, the 2,000-foot reel was the basic unit of projection, and each screening required four or five changes of projector. Circular cue marks printed in the upper right corner of the picture indicated when each changeover should take place. Today the 2,000-foot reel is used primarily in single-screen theaters and in archival and repertory theaters that may present only a single screening of a film. Theatrical exhibition increasingly requires the film to be “made up”—that is, reels must be spliced together to enable the projectionist to make a single changeover between large reels or to use external transports that contain an entire feature without changeovers. For the former, a feature film of six 2,000-foot reels would be reassembled onto two 6,000-foot reels with a running time of about an hour each. The changeover is made by the traditional switching method using the cues at the end of the reel or by attaching a strip of foil sensor tape to the edge of the film, where it activates the appropriate switching relays. Coming attractions (“trailers”) and announcements (“snipes”—e.g., “No Smoking” or “Starts Friday”) are spliced in sequence at the head of the first reel or may be on a separate reel. Up to three auditoriums may be served from a common booth when large reels are used.

The advent of xenon lamps made it possible to reduce or eliminate changeovers to the point where a single projectionist could operate the equipment for several auditoriums. Although there was an occasional theater with more than one screen in the days of carbon-arc projection, it is xenon projection that truly began the age of multiplex cinemas. With more than three screens, equipment popularly known as the flatbed, or platter, system is mandatory. The entire film is shown without changeovers and does not need to be rewound. The most advanced version of the platter eliminates the need for rethreading. The last frame of film is spliced to the first, as in the Edison Kinetoscope.

Sound reproduction

theater sound systems are divided into the “A” chain and “B” chain. The “B” chain components are the power amplifiers and speakers that, although specially made, are not essentially different from those in other audio systems. The “A” chain components are the optical pickup and preamplifier and employ some principles unique to motion pictures.

The simplest and most common sound system employs a single amplifier channel and one speaker behind the screen. Stereo variable area (SVA), popularly known as Dolby, though in fact made by several manufacturers, employs a split optical pickup for two sets of wires for the left and right channels. Three stage speakers (left, right, and center) are mounted behind the screen, and an array of speakers is spread along the side and rear of the auditorium for “surround” sound. Most feature films are prepared so that dialogue issues from the center speaker, music and on-screen sound effects from the left and right, and off-screen sounds from the surrounds. A processor decodes the four channels from dual variable area tracks; information appearing on the left track is sent to the left speaker, on the right track to the right speaker, while information on both tracks is combined in the center channel. The surround channel is derived from inversion phase relationships between the left and right tracks.

In monaural systems, a treble cut is employed in accordance with the Standard Electrical Characteristic of 1938, or Academy Curve, so that frequencies above 8,000 hertz (Hz) are “rolled off.” This practice dates from an era when sound tracks had a large degree of ground noise and vacuum tube amplifiers produced an audible hiss concentrated in the upper frequencies. A treble boost is added during rerecording so that monaural sound tracks sound shrill and sibilant when played without the Academy filter. The introduction of Dolby noise reduction in conjunction with optical tracks made it possible for frequencies to range up to about 12,000 Hz. With the replacement of tube power amplifiers by solid state ones, large wattages are easily obtainable, and theater sound is generally louder than it was formerly. The normal level for dialogue in a monaural film is 80 decibels (dB) in the center of the auditorium; the normal Dolby level is 85 dB, or nearly double that.

SVA is a direct replacement for the four-track magnetic sound introduced in 1953 in conjunction with CinemaScope. Today, magnetic sound is used only with 70-mm prints where six tracks are contained in four stripes of magnetic oxide embossed on the film. The magnetic reproducer, called a penthouse, is mounted above the projector. On a magnetic print, the sound displacement is behind the picture (28 frames in 35 mm and 23 frames in 70 mm).

Until recently, theater speakers were not capable of reproducing sounds below 80 Hz. The standard theater speaker was a two-way system with a high-frequency horn mounted atop a cabinet containing a wide, shallow paper cone woofer. The impetus given to 70-mm six-track sound by the great success of Star Wars led to the development of the THX system for exhibition. In the six-track system, five stage speakers are mounted in a flat baffle wall behind the screen; each has double 15-inch woofers for low-frequency reproduction down to 40 Hz. For frequencies down to 30 Hz, sub-woofers are connected to a bass extension module that augments signals below 100 Hz on the tracks. At this level, sound is not heard but felt as vibration in the viewer’s diaphragm. The THX system delivers undistorted sound up to a level of 108 dB per channel.

Auditorium design

The most crucial consideration of theater design is the relationship of picture size to the seating area. In the 1940s the Society of Motion Picture Engineers propounded the “two and six rule,” which stated that the first row of seats should be at a distance from the screen equal to twice the picture width and the last row at six picture widths. This rule was based on the Academy picture ratio of 1.33 to 1, which is no longer used except for revival showings. The rule is still valid, however, because the wide-screen formats derive their impact from extension of the picture into the viewer’s peripheral vision, and proper installation will maintain constant picture height through all formats.

Depending upon the seating capacity of the auditorium, the image may be made larger or smaller by changing the focal length of the lens. The lens size is calculated by multiplying the “throw” (distance from lens to screen) by the width of the aperture and dividing the total by the picture width. Thus, to produce a picture 18.5 feet wide in 1.85 format (aperture width .825 inch) in an auditorium having a 90-foot throw would require a 4-inch lens.

The recommended level of screen brightness is 16 foot lamberts in the center of the screen (with no film in the aperture), but a level of 12 to 14 foot lamberts is more typical for commercial cinemas. It is difficult to illuminate a large picture, because screen brightness decreases in proportion to the square of the increase in screen size; i.e., the light source used to produce a 30-foot-wide picture will have to be not twice but four times as bright as that for a 15-foot image.

Light from the screen is wasted if it comes back over the heads of the audience, is too low down, or is too far to the sides. Light may be conserved, at the expense of even illumination, by the use of various screen surfaces. The ordinary matte-white screen exhibits approximately the same level of brightness at wide angles as from the center axis. It is possible to increase the light reflected to the center axis by using pearlescent screen surfaces that contain a brightness enhancing agent. Such screens conserve light but cannot be used in a theater with a wide audience area. Another screen surface is the aluminized, or silver, screen associated with old-style movie palaces with very long throws. This screen is even brighter than the pearlescent version but loses its brightness markedly if viewed from beyond 20 degrees from the center axis. It is mandatory for 3-D presentation, however, because an ordinary white screen depolarizes the light.

theater screens are perforated to allow transmission of sound from speakers behind the screen. The perforations account for only about 8 percent of the screen surface and do not substantially degrade the picture.

Reverberation times in excess of one second degrade speech intelligibility from the speakers. Very large, old theaters built for vaudeville and live musical accompaniment of silent films have high ceilings and large interior volumes that produce reverberation times of two seconds or more. Well-designed theaters employ curved, often serrated walls and avoid parallel walls and right angles that can produce short-path reflections.