Sengoku period
Sengoku period, time of civil war, political upheaval, and social transformation in Japan that lasted from roughly 1467 to 1600. The weakening of the Ashikaga shogunate led to the rise of independent daimyo (feudal lords) who fought for supremacy across the country. At the height of the Sengoku period, Japan was divided into dozens of warring states ruled by daimyo clans. This period also saw the arrival of European traders and missionaries, as well as the introduction of gunpowder weapons. Eventually, central control was established through the efforts of the “three great unifiers”—Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu—who laid the foundations for the long-lasting and prosperous Tokugawa period (1603–1867).
The history of the Sengoku period continues to captivate audiences worldwide, with historical figures such as Yasuke, sometimes considered the first foreign-born samurai, appearing in modern books, video games, anime, and manga. The era has also inspired popular adaptations, such as James Clavell’s 1975 historical novel Shōgun and its 1980 and 2024 TV adaptations.
Background
For much of the first millennium ce, Japan was ruled by an emperor who was considered divine, much like in Korea and China. However, by the late 12th century, Japan had begun to develop in a markedly different direction from its neighbors. A powerful samurai (warrior) class emerged, gradually challenging the authority of the imperial court.
The decisive shift from imperial to military rule occurred in 1185, when Minamoto Yoritomo established a military government that would evolve into the Kamakura shogunate. In 1192 he formally took the title of shogun (military dictator). This marked the beginning of nearly seven centuries of military rule during which the emperor was reduced to a largely ceremonial figurehead. The Kamakura shogunate lasted until 1333 and was followed by the Ashikaga shogunate (1338–1573). This prolonged era of military governance in Japan fostered a distinct martial culture that set Japan apart from the rest of East Asia.
Despite their military dominance, neither the Kamakura nor Ashikaga shogunates were able to maintain complete control over Japan. The Kamakura shogunate shared power with regional daimyo and with the imperial court. The Ashikaga shogunate, weaker than its predecessor, faced even greater challenges as regional autonomy increased. The shoguns largely ignored the emperor, and in turn, the daimyo increasingly disregarded the shogunate’s authority. This growing instability culminated in the Ōnin War (1467–77), a conflict sparked by a succession dispute that escalated into widespread violence. The war effectively broke the power of the already fragile Ashikaga shogunate, plunging Japan into the chaos of the Sengoku period.
Major events and figures
Early years, Ōnin War, and European arrival
By the end of the Ōnin War in 1477, Japan had descended into complete political fragmentation, with the conflict escalating into a far-reaching civil war. Kyōto, the traditional cultural and political center, was burned and left in ruins, and while the Ashikaga shogunate still nominally ruled from the city, the shogun had become little more than a figurehead.
Amid Japan’s internal chaos, a group of Portuguese sailors were shipwrecked in 1543 on the island of Tanega, off southern Kyushu. These were the first Europeans to arrive in Japan, and the art of musket construction they passed on at this time immediately spread to Sakai and other places. By the 1550s Japan had rapidly adopted and refined matchlock firearms and was producing them in significant quantities. In addition to weapons, the Portuguese introduced Christianity, and some daimyo clans in western Japan, such as the Ōtomo, Ōmura, and Arima, converted for both religious and political reasons. The arrival of European trade, technology, and religion added a new layer of complexity to the political landscape.
The Three Great Unifiers
“Nobunaga pounds the rice cake, Hideyoshi kneads it, and Ieyasu sits down and eats it.”
—Japanese proverb
Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582)
Born into a minor samurai family in Owari province (the western part of modern-day Aichi province), Oda Nobunaga secured leadership of the Oda clan after his father’s death in 1551. By 1560 he had unified Owari and gained national fame at the Battle of Okehazama, where he routed the much larger army of Imagawa Yoshimoto. This victory elevated him from a local warlord to a serious contender for national dominance. Over the next decade, Nobunaga expanded his territory through both military conquests and political maneuvering, making strategic alliances and implementing economic policies such as the rakuichi-rakuza system, which abolished merchant guild monopolies and encouraged free trade. He was also an early adopter of guns, becoming the first daimyo to effectively incorporate them into his forces.
In 1568 Nobunaga marched into Kyōto and installed Ashikaga Yoshiaki as a puppet shogun. Their alliance soon soured, and in 1573 Nobunaga forced Yoshiaki into exile, ending the Ashikaga shogunate and beginning to rule as the de facto leader of Japan. From his stronghold at Azuchi Castle near Lake Biwa, he centralized governance, conducted land surveys, and strengthened his control over commerce and taxation. His eagerness to adopt Western technology revolutionized Japanese military techniques, as seen in the Battle of Nagashino (1575), where his organized gun volleys shattered the feared Takeda cavalry.
A shrewd and ruthless strategist, Nobunaga also diminished the power of militant Buddhist sects, destroying the Enryaku monasteries on Mount Hiei and subduing the Ikkō. He tolerated Jesuit missionaries to counter Buddhist influence and, in 1581, famously welcomed the African warrior Yasuke into his service. By 1582, having conquered central Japan, he was poised to subjugate western Japan. However, a betrayal by his general Akechi Mitsuhide at Honnō-ji forced him to commit seppuku. His ambitious unification of Japan remained incomplete, but he had laid a strong foundation for others to build upon.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536/37–1598)
Born to a peasant family in Owari province, Toyotomi Hideyoshi rose from humble foot soldier (ashigaru) in Nobunaga’s army to one of Japan’s most influential warlords. His intelligence and diplomatic skill earned him the title of samurai, and by overthrowing powerful regional daimyo, he became lord of Nagahama in 1573. Following Nobunaga’s death in 1582, Hideyoshi swiftly defeated the traitor Akechi Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki, positioning himself as Nobunaga’s heir in all but name.
Hideyoshi then consolidated control over the fractured Oda clan, constructed a formidable base at Ōsaka Castle, and systematically brought rival daimyo under his authority. Though he was briefly challenged by Tokugawa Ieyasu, Ieyasu submitted to Hideyoshi’s leadership, and Hideyoshi continued to forge alliances to reinforce his position. By 1590 he had unified most of Japan and secured recognition from the emperor, who granted him the prestigious titles of kampaku (chancellor) and later dajō-daijin (chief minister), as well as the new family name “Toyotomi.”
With domestic unification largely achieved, Hideyoshi turned his ambitions outward, launching invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597 with the ultimate—though unrealistic—goal of conquering China and beyond. Overextended and costly, these campaigns failed, and the Korean admiral Yi Sun-Shin won lasting fame for repelling the Japanese invasion fleets. Hideyoshi died in 1598, leaving a weakened but still unified Japan under a centralized military government, paving the way for Tokugawa Ieyasu to assume power.
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616)
Born in Mikawa province (the eastern part of present-day Aichi prefecture) to a minor samurai clan, Tokugawa Ieyasu spent part of his youth as a hostage of the powerful Imagawa clan. After Oda Nobunaga’s victory over Imagawa Yoshimoto at the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, Ieyasu reclaimed the Tokugawa ancestral lands and aligned himself with Nobunaga, steadily expanding his influence. By the early 1580s he had become a major daimyo, controlling strategically vital territory and establishing strong administrative systems.
After Nobunaga’s death, Ieyasu was briefly a rival of Hideyoshi but then submitted to his leadership and moved his own headquarters east to Edo (modern Tokyo). While Hideyoshi focused on campaigns in western Japan and Korea, Ieyasu focused on strengthening Edo’s infrastructure, organizing his domain efficiently, and building a powerful, loyal army.
Hideyoshi’s death in 1598 triggered another power struggle among the daimyo. In 1600 Ieyasu’s forces triumphed at the decisive Battle of Sekigahara, making him the undisputed master of Japan. He soon received the title of shogun in 1603, ushering in the Tokugawa period.
The Tokugawa period (1603–1867)
In the aftermath of the Sengoku period’s prolonged chaos, the Tokugawa period (1603–1867) ushered in more than two centuries of relative peace and stability. Governed from Edo, the Tokugawa shogunate implemented sakoku, an isolationist foreign policy that minimized external influence and fostered domestic economic growth. It also enforced a strict social hierarchy, placing samurai above farmers, artisans, and merchants. Ironically, however, many samurai struggled financially as prosperous urban centers such as Edo, Ōsaka, and Kyōto thrived on trade and craftsmanship. The sakoku policy also banned Christianity.
Ultimately, sakoku largely shielded Japan from Western encroachment even as much of Asia fell under European colonial rule. During this time Japanese cultural forms such as wood-block printing and haiku flourished. By the mid-19th century, however, pressures from abroad—culminating in the 1853 arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry—forced the country to open up. In 1867 the Tokugawa government fell, imperial rule was reestablished, and the Meiji Restoration began to initiate Japan’s full technological and economic modernization.